Everything up until the 2nd midterm Flashcards

Question

Why is cellular division essential to life for single celled and multicellular organisms?

Answer 1

Single celled: Cellular division is a form of creating new life (reproduction) Multicellular: Cellular division allows for growth in size, increased complexity, and repair

Answer 2

Identical sister chromatids are separated, resulting in the formation of two identical daughter nuclei -mitosis is the nuclear division stage -cytokinesis is the stage in which the cells physically separate

Answer 3

-Prophase (early and late) -Metaphase -Anaphase -Telophase

Answer 4

Interphase = growing and developing Cellular division = reproduction

Answer 5

Interphase is the longest phase of a cell's life (80-90%) and is where the cell grows, develops, and completes its typical tasks. Three distinct intervals: -G1 Phase (first gap) -S Phase (DNA synthesis) -G2 Phase (second gap) * see slide 4 for a picture demonstrating this

Answer 6

DNA is uncondensed in interphase in a form called chromatin; used for protein synthesis -chromatin looks foggy within a cell's nucleus - nucleolus visible as dark patch

Answer 7

-Not all cells will divide immediately. some will exit the cell cycle after G1 and will not immediately undergo cellular division -These cells will enter G0 phase -Some cells remain in G0 permanently, others only for a few days "resting phase"

Answer 8

-If a cell does continue to S phase, their DNA (chromosomes) will be duplicated -Newly formed and identical chromosomes will be attached at the centromere -Chromosomes are now called sister chromatids *see slide 8 for before/after S phase

Answer 9

The cytoskeleton breaks down and the centrioles duplicate

Answer 10

-nucleolus disappears (no more need for ribosomes) -chromatin condenses, chromatids visible -spindle fibres form from centrioles, pushing them apart

Answer 11

-the nuclear membrane breaks down -centrioles are at opposite ends of the cell -spindle fibres connect with centromeres of chromatids

Answer 12

interphase: clear nucleolus, fuzzy chromatin in nucleus (90% of cells at this stage in any given moment) prophase: no nucleolus, clear chromatid strands (sometimes not bound within nucleus)

Answer 13

-spindle fibres have pulled the chromatids into an organized line across the metaphase plate along the center of the cell *spindle checkpoint - enzymes ensure all chromosomes are lined up and properly connected to spindle fibres before continuing

Answer 14

-spindle fibres shorten to pull the sister chromatids apart, each toward opposite ends -cell visibly elongates -sister chromatids are now considered to be daughter chromosomes

Answer 15

-chromosomes decondense back into chromatin; spindle fibres break down -two new nuclear membranes and nucleoli reappear -now two complete daughter nuclei in one cell

Answer 16

-cell splits into two identical daughter cells -in animal cells, plasma membrane pinches together to form cleavage furrow to separate nuclei -in plant cells, a cell plate forms between cell walls *see slide 19 for visual

Answer 17

-in animal cells, plasma membrane pinches together to form cleavage furrow to separate nuclei -in plant cells, a cell plate forms between cell walls *see slide 19 for visual

Answer 18

-Cells will not divide if certain checkpoints are not met -regulatory proteins check for errors, inadequacies -ensures that cell division only takes place if the cell is healthy

Answer 19

G1 checkpoint: nutrients, growth factors, DNA damage -some cells will exit after G1 into G0 G2 checkpoint: cell size, DNA replication Metaphase checkpoint: chromosome spindle attachment

Answer 20

-mutations in DNA may cause regulatory proteins to misfold and skip the replication checkpoints -damaged cells may divide without control -cells that rapidly divide become abnormal and do not function properly. They can form masses called tumors. -if these unregulated cells invade other tissues, they are considered cancer cells -they can metastasize (spread) via circulatory system to form new tumors

Answer 21

Produces sex cells mitosis = asexual meiosis = sexual - plants also do this -meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that results in gametes (sex cells; sperm and egg cells) that have half the number of chromosomes

Answer 22

The combination of genetic information form two parents to create unique offspring

Answer 23

Sex cells -they have one set of each chromosome, thus are considered haploid (n) -n=the number of unique chromosomes of that species

Answer 24

The fusion of two gametes, which results in a unique zygote that has two sets of each chromosome haploid sperm + haploid egg = diploid zygote n + n = 2n

Answer 25

They are human body cells, and are diploid (2n) Each set of chromosomes is considered a homologous pair -human somatic cells are 2n=46 -human gametes are n=23 -human somatic cells are 2n=46

Answer 26

-meiosis is the cellular division process that results in genetically unique haploid gametes -meiosis involves one round of DNA replication (interphase) and two rounds of cell division (meiosis 1 and meiosis 2) *look at slide 6*

Answer 27

-to create change/variation -non sister chromatids exchange genetic material -sister chromatids are no linger identical to each other -1st source of genetic variation produced by meiosis This also seems to be what recombinant chromosomes are? Idk she asked about it in the learning outcomes but I cant find it anywhere in notes or slides. Heres online definition: the exchange of genetic material either between multiple chromosomes or between different regions of the same chromosome.

Answer 28

-homologous chromosomes will line up at metaphase plate in groups called tetrads -orientation of the pair is completely random, adding to genetic variability

Answer 29

Tetrads are 2 forms of chromatids They form in metaphase 1

Answer 30

Homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles by spindle fibers -sister chromatids are still connected to each other at centromeres Either chromosome may be pulled towards either end of the cell -called independent assortment -2nd form of genetic variation in meiosis

Answer 31

It is when either chromosome may be pulled towards either end of the cell -2nd form of genetic variation in meiosis

Answer 32

-one sister chromatid set from each homologous pair is now at each pole of the cell -cytokinesis usually occurs at the same time, forming two haploid daughter cells *chromosomes are still duplicated in this form (two un-identical sister chromatids still attached at centromeres)

Answer 33

-crossing over - non-sister chromatids exchange genetic material (the process of exchanging) -independent assortment - either chromosome may be pulled towards either end of the cell -recombinant chromosomes = the results of crossing over (you now have 2 unique chromosomes)

Answer 34

-the stage between meiosis 1 and 2 -cells continue to grow -DNA does NOT replicate (no S phase)

Answer 35

interphase duplicates DNA, interkinesis does not -both happen before division

Answer 36

If nuclear membrane is present, it breaks down and chromosomes re-condense

Answer 37

Chromosomes form a single line across the middle of the cell (just like regular metaphase, but now for haploid cells)

Answer 38

-sister chromatids are separated and move to opposite poles -once separated, each sister is now considered a chromosome

Answer 39

Nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes

Answer 40

Mitosis: -asexual -one round of cell division Meiosis 1: meiosis has 2 rounds of cell division sexual

Answer 41

-daughter cells separate -one from each of the two from meiosis 1, for a total of four daughter cells -cells are all haploid (n) -cells are all unique to each other due to crossing over (prophase 1) and independent assortment (anaphase 1)

Answer 42

The creation of sperm cells -one diploid spermatocyte will divide equally into four haploid spermatids -all four spermatids may develop into sperm cells -this process occurs continuously in testes from puberty

Answer 43

the sum of the chemical reactions taking place inside of a cell

Answer 44

Small molecules (monomers) are assembled into large ones(polymers). Energy is required.

Answer 45

Large molecules (polymers) are broken down into smaller ones, Energy is released.

Answer 46

Reactants -> Products

Answer 47

The creation of egg cells -one diploid oocyte will only give rise to one viable haploid egg cell -during meiosis 1, one haploid cell will get most of the cytoplasm and organelles -meiosis 1 is oaused in early prophase following embryonic development, doesn't continue until puberty -when an egg is released during the menstrual cycle, it is paused in meiosis 2 -if fertilized by a sperm, meiosis 2 will complete and the unequal division will occur again, leaving one viable egg cell and another smaller polar body, which will disintegrate

Answer 48

the chemicals required in a chemical reaction

Answer 49

the chemicals produced in a chemical reaction

Answer 50

the movement of particles, relating to heat and temperature

Answer 51

Stored energy, relating to energy stored in matter

Answer 52

the ability to do work, it can be in different forms, for example, chemical bonds (AKA chemical energy)

Answer 53

they release energy that has been stored in chemical bonds of reactants. Products have less stored energy than reactants and free energy is produced

Answer 54

they absorb energy and store it in chemical bonds of the products as potential energy - Products have more stored energy than reactants

Answer 55

In all chemical reactions, this energy (activation energy) input is required

Answer 56

enzymes are proteins that catalyze (speed up) biochemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required

Answer 57

a chemical reactant that the enzyme binds to at a special region called its active site (forms an enzyme-substrate complex)

Answer 58

the special region that substrates bind to

Answer 59

physically bringing reactants together, compromising bond structures in reactants, taking part in the reaction itself

Answer 60

the enzyme remains unchanged and may continue to catalyze more reactions

Answer 61

Its shape (quaternary structure)

Answer 62

its active site will not allow for substrates to bind

Answer 63

changing the temperature and/or pH of environment

Answer 64

the concentration of H+ in a solution can change the chemical bonds in a protein's amino acid change (enzymes have specific optimal pH ranges) A change in the active site of an enzyme leads to a change in the enzymes activity

Answer 65

if the bonds in a protein are broken down too severely, the protein denatures, and cannot bind to its substrate

Answer 66

too high temperature, or out of optimal pH range

Answer 67

a molecule that can bind to enzymes to block or reduce action

Answer 68

an inhibitor that binds directly to enzymes active site, blocking binding of substrate completely

Answer 69

an inhibitor that binds to an enzyme in the allosteric site, reducing rate of reaction

Answer 70

Spermatogenesis: -diploid spermatocyte will divide equally into four haploid spermatids spermatocyte dides equally into four haploid spermatids process occurs continuously in testes from puberty Oogenesis: -one oocyte will only give rise to one viable haploid egg cell -one haploid cell will get most of the cytoplasm and organelles -meiosis 1 is paused in early prophase, doesn't continue till puberty Sperm carry X or Y Eggs always carry X 36 from each

Answer 71

a compound produced by fungi, a competitive inhibitor for bacterial enzyme used to create cell walls, and it is used as an antibiotic to treat bacterial infections

Answer 72

catabolic reactions are exergonic; anabolic reactions are endergonic

Answer 73

enzymes lower activation energy

Answer 74

pH, temperature, inhibitor

Answer 75

adenosine triphosphate, it is a useable form of energy

Answer 76

- a series of cellular enzymatic reactions that collects the stored energy from glucose molecules - The free energy collected is then stored in a more useable form, ATP - ATP is considered the "energy currency" of the cell and is used for various cellular processes - cells convert ADP TO ATP, using the energy stored in glucose molecules to do so

Answer 77

C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 -----> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Answer 78

1 adenine (nitrogenous base) 1 ribose sugar 3 phosphates

Answer 79

a very high energy bond (easy to break) - hydrolysis releases the energy

Answer 80

2 negative ions don't want to attach, thee third is forced onto the second. In cellular respiration, hydrolysis releases the energy stored in between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate

Answer 81

ADP - adenosine diphosphate

Answer 82

Transcription & Translation

Answer 83

an organic (carbon and hydrogen-containing) molecule with many strong covalent bonds - a large amount of energy is stored within the covalent bonds between the carbons

Answer 84

32-38 ATP via cellular respiration

Answer 85

1. Glycolysis 2. Citric Acid Cycle 3. Electron Transport CHain

Answer 86

Glycolysis = breaking glucose In glycolysis, a 6-carbon glucose molecule is split in two (breaking down the covalent bonds between carbons) - Two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules are the products - This step takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell - No mitochondria needed - No oxygen needed Starting with CARBON -> ending with pyruvates (2)

Answer 87

eukaryotes and prokaryotes

Answer 88

2 ATP required for initial reaction, by the end, 4 ATP are newly synthesized THUS: net gain of 2 ATP So, cells without mitochondria can still create ATP

Answer 89

the reduced form of the molecule NAD+ after it has accepted two electrons and a proton (which together are the equivalent of a hydrogen atom with an extra electron).

Answer 90

stores high energy electrons

Answer 91

molecules called NAD+ receive a hydrogen ion and two electrons, converting them to NADH. These high energy electrons are then shuttled to the mitochondria NAD+ + H+ + 2e- -> NADH

Answer 92

oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction

Answer 93

1 Glucose molecule + 2 ATP + 2 NAD+

Answer 94

the copying of a DNA segment

Answer 95

2 pyruvates + 4 ATP + 2 NADH

Answer 96

building a protein from a genetic code.

Answer 97

the nitrogenous base in NADH has one more hydrogen ion and two more electrons than in NAD+

Answer 98

- ribose sugar (instead of deoxyribose) - Has the base of uracil (U) instead of thymine(T) - RNA is single stranded

Answer 99

the citric acid cycle (AKA krebs cycle)

Answer 100

- messenger RNA (mRNA) - ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - transfer RNA (tRNA)

Answer 101

pyruvates are broken down. If oxygen is available the pyruvates are transferred into the mitochondria of the cell to be further broken down. The pyruvates are allowed to go down the concentration gradient, then shuttled into the mitochondria, fro, the cytoplasm into the mitochondrion

Answer 102

two membranes - a double membrane

Answer 103

Contains the genetic code from a DNA template, is sent to ribosomes for translation Specifies the order of amino acids in a protein using a series of 3-base codons, where different amino acids are specified by particular codons..

Answer 104

- is found in the ribosomes and is used to bind to animo acids together. - assists in making the covalent bonds that link amino acids together to make a protein.

Answer 105

before the cycle begins, a carbon from the pyruvate molecule is removed and joined with oxygen to form CO2, which leaves the cell. The newly formed 2-carbon acetyl group is picked up by a carrier compound called coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA. (everytime a carbon is taken off, the enzyme will attach itself where the carbon was).

Answer 106

carries amino acids and brings them to the ribosome for protein synthesis - transports the correct amino acids to the ribosome using the information encoded in the mRNA

Answer 107

as pyruvate is broken and joined with Coenzyme A, two electrons are donated to another NAD+ to form NADH. The newly formed acetyl CoA molecule then enters the citric acid cycle. Reminder: this happens twice (one glucose molecule; two pyruvates)

Answer 108

1) Initiation 2) Elongation 3) Termination

Answer 109

- acetyl-CoA undergoes a series of chemical reactions which further break the molecules apart - As the molecules are broken, high energy electrons are donated to 3 NAD + and 1 FAD (another electron carrier) - 2 more CO2 are formed - 1 ATP is created - Coenzyme A gets reused, and brought back to the preparatory step

Answer 110

a particular gene in the DNA code will be TRANSCRIBED into messenger RNA (mRNA), which can then LEAVE the nucleus.

Answer 111

IN: 2 acetyl groups + 6 NAD+ + 2 FAD

Answer 112

OUT: 4 CO2 + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 ATP

Answer 113

-occurs in meiosis - if pieces of chromosomes are lost, duplicated, or improperly moved within a chromosome to another, this results in non-disjunction -results in differences in the genetics of the egg and sperm cells *not the same at genetic mutation

Answer 114

1) PROMOTER region = used to initiate transcription location - upstream of the gene, on one side. 2) RNA-coding region = the thing that is transcribed location - middle of the gene 3) TERMINATOR region = ends the transcription location - downstream of the gene

Answer 115

outer membrane, inner membrane the space between these membranes is the intermembrance space the space beneath the inner membrane is called the mitochondrial matrix 2 membranes

Answer 116

Electron Transport Chain

Answer 117

-down syndrome three copies of chromosome 21, aka trisomy 21 -turner syndrome only one sex chromosome (X)

Answer 118

- RNA POLYMERASE (enzyme) binds to the gene at the PROMOTER region... - the job of RNA polymerase is to pull apart the strands and lay down an RNA strand opposite of the DNA template strand.

Answer 119

the final step takes place at the inner mitochondrial membrane. This inner membrane has multiple specialized protein channels. These proteins will take part in the electron transport chain, which will be used to create an electrochemical gradient NADH and FADH2 donate high energy electrons to protein complexes within the inner mitochondrial membrane, which push H+ up their gradient into the intermembrane space

Answer 120

difference: sexual: combination of genetic info from two parents = unique offspring asexual: only one organism required, creates clone-not unique *not done, brain died lol

Answer 121

- when attached to the DNA template strand creates the mRNA strand in a 5' to 3' direction - literally produces RNA molecule 5' - 3' is inverse the DNA template

Answer 122

5' U U C A 3'

Answer 123

NADH and FADH2 pass their electrons to the protein channels, which pass them on to the next channel in series. As the electrons get passed, they lose energy. This energy is used to actively transport hydrogen ions into the intermembrane space to form a gradient (building up concentration gradient)

Answer 124

in the final protein complex, the low energy electrons are accepted by oxygen (called the terminal acceptor), the oxygen with its extra electrons combines with two hydrogen ions to form water (H2O)

Answer 125

- Once enough H + (protons) have been pumped into the intermembrane space, there is a strong electrochemical gradient (proton gradient): - High [H +] in the intermembrane space - Low [H +] in the mitochondrial matrix - The protons want to passively travel DOWN their gradient

Answer 126

It forms ATP via ATP synthase.

Answer 127

an enyzme embedded on the inner membrane and allows these H+ to pass

Answer 128

- when the gene is fully transcribed and RNA polymerase it will reach the TERMINATOR REGION of the gene. - terminator region = sequence of repeating nucleotides (e.g. A A A A A ....) -- this stalls the RNA polymerase, it stalls and falls off the DNA strand. (can't do its job so it falls off)

Answer 129

due to this strong gradient, the H+ want to passively move back into the matrix. ATP synthase is an enzyme embedded on the inner membrane and allows these H+ ions to pass. As H+ travel through ATP synthase back into the matrix via chemiosmosis, ATP is synthesized.

Answer 130

chemiosmosis

Answer 131

IN: - Electrons from NADH and FADH2 , O2 and H+

Answer 132

OUT: 6 H2O and ~30 ATP

Answer 133

uses cellular respiration meaning the cell converts chemical energy in the from of glucose to cellular energy also known as ATP

Answer 134

Anaerobic Respiration. If no oxygen is available, fermentation may occur in the cytoplasm of a cell. Fermentation is the anaerobic (no oxygen) way to continuously create ATP from glucose - Recall: Glycolysis creates 2 ATP!

Answer 135

to revert the 2 NADH back to NAD+ for reuse in future glycolysis steps. The pyruvates from glycolysis are converted into either lactate or ethanol

Answer 136

DNA polymerase: - makes double stranded molecule RNA polymerase: - makes single stranded molecule (we might want to add to this? idk)

Answer 137

a 6-carbon glucose molecule is split in two: 3-carbon pyruvate molecules

Answer 138

high energy electrons

Answer 139

the mitochondria

Answer 140

ATP synthase

Answer 141

DNA complementary strand: - uses deoxyribose sugar - uses thymine mRNA template strand: - uses ribose sugar - uses Uracil (nucleotide thymine is replaced with uracil in RNA template strands) - might also want to add to this later?

Answer 142

1) mRNA stabilizing proteins are added. 2) 5' recognition caps are added to the the 5' end 3) Poly-A tails will be added to the 3' ends 4) mRNA gets spliced

Answer 143

process: gene is initially transcribed into "pre-mRNA' (bolded term) pre-mRNA gets transcribed into 2 parts: exons and introns goal: we want to keep the EXONS and translate those bits into proteins... we want to remove the INTRONS pre-mRNA will have its introns removed (this process is called SPLICING) --> this creates the mature mRNA molecule

Answer 144

the mature mRNA leaves the nucleus and is brought to ribosomes. it is shuttled through the NUCLEAR PORES of the NUCLEAR MEMBRANE and to the ribosomes.

Answer 145

- the translation step. - mRNA is translated into a string of amino acids.

Answer 146

occurs in ribosomes & it creates polypeptides... how you might ask? - mRNA strand arrives at the ribosome. - string of mRNA nucleotides will be read in groups of 3 (called CODONS) - each codon is TRANSLATED into a specific amino acid (aka protein / polypeptide)

Answer 147

codons that code for the start of translation

Answer 148

codons that code for the end of translation

Answer 149

1) mRNA cap & tail guide the mRNA to bind to small ribosomal subunit 2) start codon is read 3) ribosomes are assembled

Answer 150

1) mRNA codons are read 2) amino acids are added in a sequence - forming a polypeptide chain 3) tRNA brings the specific amino acids to the ribosome for assembly

Answer 151

- tRNA molecules have an amino acid at one and an ANTICODON region at the other. - if the ANTICODON on the tRNA matches up with the CODON on the mRNA then it will add its amino acid to the chain. the anticodon looks like a little bar scanner, and its like yup you got the right bar code, so I'm gonna give you my amino acid.

Answer 152

- stop codon read - polypeptide is completed and freed - ribosome dissociates

Answer 153

complimentary DNA strand: 5' A T G C T C G A T 3' mRNA strand. : 5' A U G C U C G A U 3' if you had the chart could you tell me what the amino acid sequence would be?

Answer 154

major steps: transcription + translation transcription occurs in the nucleus. translation occurs at the site of ribosomes. (so probably mostly @ the rough ER) code = amino acids (I think???)

Answer 155

RNA: - Uracil - Ribose sugar - Single stranded molecule - short Same: - have nitrogenous bases - have sugar-phosphate backbone DNA: - Thymine - Deoxyribose sugar - double-stranded molecule - long

Answer 156

1) mRNA - carries protein information from the nucleus to the ribosomes. - dictates the order that amino acids should be added to a protein 2) rRNA - found in ribosome - binds amino acids together with covalent bonds 3) tRNA - carries amino acids to the protein for synthesis

Answer 157

1) Initiation - RNA polymerase pulls apart DNA strands and lays down RNA strands 2) Elongation - RNA polymerase attaches to template strand. - starts creating mRNA strand 5' to 3' 3) Termination - When fully transcribed RNA polymerase reaches the terminator region - polymerase dissociates and falls off the DNA strand. Structures involved: RNA polymerase

Answer 158

1) mRNA stabeling proteins added 2) 5' recognition caps added 3) Poly- A tails added 4) mRNA is spliced to remove Introns

Answer 159

1) Initiation (start codon read, ribsosomes assembled) 2) Elongation (amino acids added in sequence) 3) Termination (stop codon read, ribosome dissociates) 1 codon = 3 bases = 1 amino acid tRNA = carries amino acid anticodon = bases to match mRNA template (anticodon = 3' to 5') (mRNA = 5' to 3')

Answer 160

just practice

Answer 161

...........................

Answer 162

a permanent change in a DNA sequence

Answer 163

- differences in the amino acid sequence - major physiological / anatomical changes in an organism

Answer 164

sickle cell anemia (reduced oxygen capacity in red blood cells)

Answer 165

1) spontaneous error 2) Environmental mutagens

Answer 166

durring DNA replication

Answer 167

factors that cause mutagens

Answer 168

when the mutation results in the same amino acid being produced... there is no observable change to the protein (many mRNA codons can code for the same amino acid, so sometimes if one base gets mutated its not a big deal)

Answer 169

when a mutation leads to a stop codon - amino acid sequence will stop being synthesized - this could lead to a missing or dysfunctional protein (depending on where this took place in the animo acid chain)

Answer 170

when the mutation leads to a shift in the mRNA codons e.g. a deletion of a base since the codons are read in triplets, this causes a domino effect of all of the bases downstream to shift produces entirely different animo acids

Answer 171

when only one or two nucleotides are effected

Answer 172

1) substitution 2) deletion 3) insertion

Answer 173

one base is substituted for another. typically, only 1 codon is effected in these types of mutation... it may lead to a SILENT or NONSENSE mutation.

Answer 174

sickle cell anemia - caused by single base change - leads to single animo acid change

Answer 175

when one or more bases are deleted leads to frameshift in the codon sequence... amino acids get fucked its a MISSENSE MUTATION

Answer 176

cystic fibrosis - deletion results in protein channel misfolding and becoming dysfunctional - leads to mucus build up in tissues and physiological challenges

Answer 177

when one or more bases are added to the code - leads to missense mutation - everything gets shifted down. - results in different amino acids being created

Answer 178

Huntington's disease - brain cells are damaged by misshapen proteins - over time, individuals lose co-ordination of movements, cognitive function, and memory

Answer 179

yes sometimes large sections of the chromosomes are modified

Answer 180

when large segments of DNA are lost

Answer 181

when segments of DNA are repeated

Answer 182

segments of DNA break off and flip 180 degrees

Answer 183

segments move from one chromosome to another (non-homologous)

Answer 184

hemophilia - blood clotting disorder - nucleotides are the same, but in a different order on the chromosome. - proteins are different.... its bad

Answer 185

it may affect the individual BUT the mutation is not based on to offspring

Answer 186

- germ cells = egg / sperm cells - they may be inherited by offspring - these mutations drive evolution, as they are passed down to the next generation

Answer 187

the introduction, removal, or change in the genetic material e.g. replacing defective genes with healthy ones + adding new genes to help the body fight or treat diseases

Answer 188

when there is no drug or surgery option for treatment or cure for a disease

Answer 189

in gene therapy, vectors deliver the genes into cells. can be IN VIVO - into patients themselves or EX VIVO - cells removed, genes added, cells returned

Answer 190

Comp DNA : AAG mRNA codon: AAG amino acid: Lys silent mutation (same amino acid): AAA translate back to DNA: TTT

Answer 191

Comp DNA: TAT mRNA codon: UAU amino acid: Tyr nonsense mutation (aka stop codon): UAA back to DNA: TAA ------> ATT

Answer 192

DNA 3' TAG CCT CA 5' mRNA 5' AUC GGA GU 3' AA. Lle Gly stop (need to see the wheel thing to know this)

Answer 193

a. chromosomal: i. duplication ii. deletion iii. translocation iv. inversion b. point mutation i. substitution ii. insertion iii. deletion

Answer 194

inherited qualities received from parent(s)

Answer 195

invariant traits are the same in all individuals of a species (they don't vary) e.g. all humans have two eyes, same bones, ect

Answer 196

variable traits may differ among individuals (they vary) e.g. different eye colours, height, ect

Answer 197

stretches of DNA on a CHROMOSOME that contain codes for particular traits

Answer 198

different versions of a given gene for example (pea plants can have either purple or white flowers)

Answer 199

- it is always expressed if present - it represses other genes e.g. purple allele represses white allele for flower colour gene. (because the purple allele is dominant)

Answer 200

with CAPITAL LETTERS e.g. P represents purple allele

Answer 201

ONLY in the absence of dominant alleles e.g. white flowers will only be white if there is no purple allele present

Answer 202

with a lowercase letter e.g. 'p' represents white alleles

Answer 203

the specific combination of alleles that an individual possesses for a particular gene. e.g. for flower colour, pea plants could be PP, Pp, or pp its just all the combinations possible of gene expression

Answer 204

the physical expression of those alleles e.g. pea plants that are PP or Pp will still have purple flowers, and pea plants that are pp will have white flowers

Answer 205

two! a diploid organism inherits two alleles, one from each parental gamete

Answer 206

when both alleles are the same e.g. PP or pp GAY

Answer 207

when the alleles are different e.g. Pp NOT GAY

Answer 208

1. AA aa ---- they gay 2. Aa ---- straight 3. tall = AA and Aa 4. short = aa 5. A is dominant

Answer 209

1. alleles separate from each other during the production of gametes (MEIOSIS) 2. gametes carry 1 allele 3. gametes have EQUAL LIKELYHOOD of passing on either allele to future generations

Answer 210

- they are used to predict genetic probabilities in future generations - reveals all potential offspring genotypes and phenotypes! - a grid is used to map out the possible parental allele combinations

Answer 211

PP, Pp, Pp, pp

Answer 212

2 x 2 table. - 2 paternal (from sperm) alleles ABOVE each column - maternal (from egg) alleles TO THE LEFT of each row - create 4 allele combinations. - important: dominant allele always comes first when writing out the combinations (Pp) - the combinations = the potential GENOTYPES of the next generation

Answer 213

- you count how many out of the 4 have each possible genotype. - stated as either a percentage or a fraction e.g. if the possible genotypes are PP, Pp, Pp, pp the ratio: PP = 1/4 Pp = 2/4 pp = 1/4 percentage: PP = 25% Pp = 50% pp = 25%

Answer 214

count how many of the four have each possible phenotype (e.g. how many flowers will be purple and white based on the dominant allele) P = dominant = purple p = recessive = white so if we are working with PP, Pp, Pp, pp ratio: 3/4 will be purple 1/4 will be white percentage: 75% purple 25% white

Answer 215

Heterozygous individuals can carry a trait in their genotype and not express it (but they might pass it on) many atypical genetic conditions are recessive. (e.g. deafness / sickle cell anemia / cystic fibrosis) in order to express these conditions, an individual must have both recessive alleles in their genotype (e.g. 'pp')

Answer 216

results: Dd, Dd, dd, dd probability child will be deaf: 50%

Answer 217

demonstrate the patterns of inheritance of a particular trait passed down a family line

Answer 218

video posted on D2L / slides reference idk

Answer 219

Chemist in the 1950s. worked at kings university Took and studied X-ray photos of DNA to determine their structure. Published her findings in 1953

Answer 220

Douchebags. Their boy "Maurice Wilkins" leaked them info on Rosalind's findings and they stole that shit and then got a noble prize for it and then wrote a book that admitted to all of it while also bullying her in the process.

Answer 221

In the S phase of interphase

Answer 222

Because when it unzips each strand is used for a template of new strands to attach to

Answer 223

1) Initiation (breaking of hydrogen bonds) 2) Elongation (building new strands) 3) Termination (sealing new strands)

Answer 224

Origin sites! there are thousands of them

Answer 225

DNA HELICASE ENZYME. It breaks the hydrogen bonds at the origin sites and travels in opposite directions.

Answer 226

When Helicase starts to unzip the DNA in opposite directions and it looks like 2 Y shape paths.(--<>--)

Answer 227

Primase enzyme will add RNA PRIMERS to the newly exposed DNA

Answer 228

It initiates DNA synthesis at the primers. Adds nucleotides in the 5-3 direction. only one strand is continuously doing this and its called the leading strand

Answer 229

"Okazaki fragments". later connected by DNA LIGASE (3rd step)

Answer 230

Ligase enzyme

Answer 231

CENTROMERE!

Answer 232

1) break hydrogen bonds (unwinds the DNA) 2) adds RNA primers at newly exposed strands 3) initiatives DNA synthesis at eh primers 4) joins together the newly synthesized DNA in a seamless strand (zips the zipper back up)

Answer 233

little caps at the ends of the chromosomes to protect the loss of important genetic information. non-coding strands of bases that will progressively get shorter after each DNAreplication

Answer 234

Trigger an entrance to G0 to protect daughter cells from loss of genetic information cell will no longer divide

Answer 235

An enzyme that synthesizes telomere regions. Cells will not "age" if they have telomerase because their genetic material will be safe from destruction. These proteins are found in germ cells, stem cells, and some cancer cells

Everything up until the 2nd midterm Flashcards

(266 cards)