EXAM 1 Flashcards
(77 cards)
1
Q
Define the term microbiology and many of its subdisciplines
A
Study of living things that are too small to be seen with the naked eye
2
Q
Give examples of the role’s microorganisms have on the planet
A
- Marine and freshwater
*Food chain in H20 - Soil
*Breakdown wastes, fix nitrogen into organic, recycle elements - Oxygen production
*Photosynthesis - Microbial ecology
*Degradation, decomp, recycling - BIOREMEDIATION- fix bio damage
- Recombinant DNA
*Genetically modified bacteria
3
Q
Give examples of the role’s microorganisms have in our lives
A
Normal flora- microbiota
- Prevents overgrowth of harmful microbes
- Aids in digestion
- Makes vitamins
- Commercial applications: chemicals, drugs, bioremediation
- Food industry
***Can be beneficial or not
4
Q
Give several examples of pathogens throughout history and the effects of those epidemics on humanity
A
- Bubonic plague/Black death: Yersinia pestis,
killed 25 million by fleas on rats - Great Irish famine: Phytophthora infestans (Protista),
killed one million (Potato Famine) - Mexico in the 1519: Cortex brought over smallpox and influenza- 90% of population died
5
Q
What did Robert Hooke do?
A
Developed the microscope
6
Q
what did Antony von Leeuwenhoek do?
A
- Advanced microscope more: looked at living things
- FATHER of MICROBIOLOGY
7
Q
what did Francesco Redi do?
A
- Challenged the idea of spontaneous generation
- Meat, flies and maggots
8
Q
what did Louis Pasteur do?
A
- Disproved spontaneous generation
- Fermentation and Pasteurization
9
Q
what did Semmelweis
do?
A
Suggested handwashing after many deaths from childbed fever
10
Q
what did Lister do?
A
Developed an antiseptic technique for surgery (used phenols)
11
Q
what did Koch do?
A
- Germ theory Specific diseases for specific microbes
- Developed technique for pure cultures and studied anthrax in cattle
12
Q
what did jenner do?
A
created a vaccine for smallpox from cowpox
13
Q
what is the germ theory of disease?
A
germs cause disease
14
Q
What were the disease beliefs before the discovery of microorganisms?
A
- evil spirits or demons
- punishment for being “infected”
15
Q
List each of Koch’s postulates and how they relate to the germ theory of disease
A
Koch’s Postulates:
- Microbes present in diseased animals
- Grow organisms in a pure culture
- Inject healthy animal with cultured cells
- Animal develops the same disease
16
Q
what are the shapes and arrangements of bacteria?
A
- COCCUS: spherical
- BACILLIS: rod-shaped
- SPIRAL: vibrio (comma), spirillum- few curves, spirochete- more curves, longer
- clusters?
- pairs?
17
Q
what is glycocalyx ?
A
Substances that surround cells
18
Q
what is the difference between a capsule and slime layer
A
- Capsule: neatly organized and firmly attached to the cell wall
- Slime Layer: unorganized and loosely attached to cell wall
19
Q
how does a glycocalyx/capsule contribute to virulence and how does it protects the bacteria
A
It protects the bacteria by not drying out. It helps it adhere, prevents phagocytosis, and helps form biofilms.
20
Q
what are the three parts of a flagellum
A
- Filament: contains flagellin protein
- Hook: attaches to the filament
- Basal body: anchors flagellum to the cell wall and membrane, contains the motor
21
Q
what is the arrangement of flagella on a bacterium?
A
- Atrichous: no flagellum
- Peritrichous: all around the perimeter
- Monotrichous: one flagellum
- Lophotrichous: only one end
- Amphitrichous: at both ends
22
Q
how does the flagella act as the H antigen?
A
Flagellar proteins distinguish among different strains of bacteria
23
Q
how does a bacterium use flagella to move and the different stimuli that bacteria are attracted to
A
- The flagella rotate like a propeller (eukaryotes have more control than prokaryotes)
- CHEMO: chemicals
- PHOTO: light
- AERO: oxygen
- MAGNE: magnetic pull
24
Q
Compare a flagellum with an endoflagellum
A
Endoflagellum is anchored at one end of a spirochete
Moves like a corkscrew and can move through viscous fluids
25
Discuss the structure and functions of fimbriae and pili
- FIMBRIAE: Hairlike appendages that allow attachment (biofilms and adhering)
- PILI: Also hairlike, but longer and 1-2 per cells (helps cell move)
- CONJUGATION PILI: involved in DNA transfer from one cell to another
26
Describe the basic anatomy and functions of the cell wall
Rigid, protective, gives cell shape, prevents the cell from exploding, contributes to pathogenicity
27
Describe the structure of peptidoglycan
28
Gram-positive cell wall
29
Gram-negative cell
30
examples of atypical cell walls including what makes them atypical and what are some organisms that have those walls
- Acid fast cell walls: Mycobacterium
Extra waxy, use acid fast staining, makes bacteria tougher
- No cell walls: *Mycoplasmas - Sterols in plasma membrane strengthen it, tiny bacteria
*Archaea - can’t be gram stained but appear gram stained (pseudomurein)
31
Describe the structure and functions of the plasma (cell) membrane
- Prokaryotes are more fragile than eukaryotes
- In bacteria and archaea, this is the ONLY membrane of the cell
- Site of catabolic reactions and ATP production
32
Define the cytoplasm and describe the organelles and other structures found within including functions
- Cytoplasm: everything inside the plasma membrane
80% water plus proteins, carbs, lipids and ions
- Nucleoid region: Contains one circular chromosome
- Plasmids: carry non-crucial genes, extrachromosomal DNA, replicate independently
- Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis, made of protein and ribosomal RNA
- 70S- Prokaryotes
- 80S- Eukaryotes
- Mechanism of action of streptomycin: antibiotic that targets the 30S subunit
33
Describe the function of endospores
- SURVIVAL STRUCTURE: one cell makes one endospore
- Resistant to desiccation, heat, chemicals and radiation
- Produced when nutrients are depleted
EX: C Diff, botulism, tetanus, anthrax
***They are destroyed by STERILIZATION (Autoclave is the best option)
34
Compare and contrast bacteria and archaea
- Both are small and simple and lack nucleus and other membrane bound organelles
- DIFFERENCES: Gene structure
- Archaea have one chromosome like prokaryotes, structure like eukaryotes
- Archaea have stronger cell membranes and may not have cell walls
- Can live in hostile environments
35
Describe what differentiates a eukaryotic cell from a prokaryotic cell
36
Discuss the structure and function of flagella and cilia
Flagella moves the cell. Cilia can create currents in a wavelike motion and can create movement.
37
describe the cell wall
Found in plants, algae and fungi, NOT humans. Made of carbs, like cellulose.
38
what are the functions of glycocalyx?
Found in animal cells. Function is to strengthen surface, helps to attach cells together and may help with recognition.
39
compare structure and function of the eukaryotic and prokaryotic plasma membrane
SIMILARITIES:
- Selectively permeable
- Phospholipid bilayer
- Proteins
DIFFERENCES (in eukaryotes)
- Sterols (complex lipids that make it stronger)
- Carbohydrates (for attachment and cell to cell recognition)
- Endocytosis: phagocytosis and pinocytosis
40
Define the cytoplasm and describe the organelles and other structures found within including functions
- Cytosol- fluid portion of cytoplasm
- Cytoskeleton- made of microfilaments and filaments, give shape and support
- Ribosomes- site of protein synthesis
- Nucleus- largest organelle (double membrane)
- Endoplasmic reticulum- folded transport network
- Rough & smooth- rough has ribosomes and smooth has none
- Golgi apparatus- package and transport organelles
- Mitochondria- involved in cellular respiration (own DNA and 70S ribosomes)
- Chloroplasts- site of photosynthesis (own DNA and 70S ribosomes)
- Lysosomes- formed in Golgi complex, contain digestive enzymes
- Peroxisomes- oxidize fatty acids
- Centrosomes- critical role in cell division, network of protein fibers and centrioles
- Vacuoles- cavities formed by the Golgi complex, bring food into cells
41
Discuss the endosymbiotic theory as it relates to mitochondria and chloroplasts
- Larger bacterial cells engulfed the smaller cells, which created eukaryotes
- Photosynthetic cells: chloroplasts
- Aerobic bacteria: mitochondria
42
what is metabolism?
all chemical reactions without a living organism
43
what is catabolism?
the breakdown of larger molecules into simpler ones- releasing energy
44
what is anabolism?
building larger molecules out of smaller ones- requiring energy
45
Describe ATP as it relates to metabolism
- ATP = energy current of the cell
- It is a cycle of storing and releasing ATP.
46
Define activation energy and reaction rates and describe these principles in chemical reactions
- Activation energy: the collision energy required for a chemical reaction to occur
- Reaction rates: frequency of collisions with enough energy to bring a reaction
OFTEN, require temps too hot for the human body OR occur too slowly to be compatible with life (i.e. activation energy too high or reaction rate too low)
47
Explain what an enzyme is and how they help overcome these two challenges
Enzymes are proteins made by the cells that act as BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS. Their function is to increase the reaction rate and decrease the activation energy!
48
what is a catalyst?
They speed up the chemical reaction without altering it, it can be used over and over
49
how are enzymes are made?
They are made by the cell... and made of proteins
50
what affects enzyme function and rates?
- Temperature
- pH
- Substrate concentration
- Inhibitors
51
what is the specificity of enzymes ?
- Cofactor: any molecule or ion that is essential for the function of an enzyme
- Coenzyme: organic non-protein material
***A CELL’S ENZYMES DETERMINE WHAT CHEMICAL REACTIONS CAN BE CATALYZED IN THAT CELL***
52
what is reduction?
gain of electrons
53
what is oxidation?
removal of electrons
54
what is a redox reaction?
an oxidation reaction paired with a reduction reaction
55
what is a metabolic pathway and its overarching function?
A series of enzymatically catalyzed chemical reactions
o Glucose to ATP- extract energy from organic sources and stores as ATP
o NAD+ to NADH-
Most a cell’s energy is produced from oxidation of carbs (catabolism)
- Respiration- sugar is completely broken down
- Fermentation- sugar is partially broken down
56
Describe the process of glycolysis
- Does not require oxygen!
- Oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid and produces NADH and ATP
o What comes in (glucose)
o What leaves (2) net ATP + (2) NADH + (2) pyruvic acid
57
Describe the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
- Most of the energy from original glucose is now NADH and FADH2
- The pyruvic acid from the glycolysis is converted to Acetyl-CoA, then enters Krebs and is broken down further.
o What comes in (pyruvic acid)
o What leaves
(2) ATP + (8) NADH + (2) FADH2 + (6) CO2 (which is waste!)
58
Describe the anatomy of the electron transport chain including differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
- CHEMIOSMOSIS
- Electrons pass down electron chain while protons are pumped across the membrane.
- Establishes a proton gradient (H+)
- Protons diffuse through ATP synthase (like a water wheel)
- Produce 34 mol of ATP for each mol of glucose
- PROKARYOTES 38 TOTAL ATP
- EUKARYOTES 36 TOTAL ATP
59
What is ATP made from?
ATP is made by the phosphorylation of ADP +energy
60
what are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
- AEROBIC RESPIRATION (final electron acceptor is oxygen)
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 38 ADP + 38 P 🡪 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP
- ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (final electron acceptor is NO3, SO4 and CO3)
***yields less energy than aerobic respiration***
61
Describe fermentation and compare it to respiration
DOES NOT:
- Require Oxygen
- Use the Krebs Cycle
- Use an electron transport chain
DOES:
- Use an organic molecule as the final - electron acceptor
- Produce only small amounts of ATP
- Also produces end products (lactic acid, alcohol, etc.)
62
what are some of the end-products of fermentation and give examples of how they are used in everyday life
- Ethanol: Beer, wine and fuel
- Lactic Acid: Cheese, rye bread, sauerkraut
- Propionic Acid and CO2: Swiss cheese
63
Lactic acid fermentation
- Homolactic: produces lactic acid only
- Heterolactic: produces lactic and other compounds
64
Alcohol fermentation
produces ethanol + CO2
65
how does the fermentation test work?
- Red -> yellow = acid
- Bubbles = gas
66
how can molecules other than glucose can contribute to the formation of ATP?
- They can be broken down by cells to release energy
- Lipids: glycerol and fatty acids
- Proteins: amino acids
67
Photosynthesis is the OPPOSITE OF RESPIRATION
68
Explain a light dependent reaction and describe the end-products
- Light reactions
- Conversion of light energy into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH)
- Goal to convert solar energy into chemical energy
69
Explain a light independent reaction and describe the end-products
- Dark reactions
- ATP and NADPH are used to reduce CO2 to sugar (aka carbon fixation)
- Goal to use stored chemical energy to create energy (glucose)
70
Calvin-Benson cycle
***OPPOSITE OF KREB’S CYCLE***
71
PHOTOTROPHS- ENERGY FROM THE SUN
*PhotoAUTOtroph- CO2 as source of carbon
- EX: algae, plants, green bacteria, purple bacteria
*PhotoHETEROtroph- organic compound as source of carbon
- EX: purple bacteria, green bacteria
72
CHEMOTROPHS- ENERGY FROM CHEMICALS
*ChemoAUTOtroph- CO2 as source of carbon
- EX: iron oxidizing bacteria
*ChemoHETEROtroph- organic compound as source of carbon
- EX: fermentative bacteria, animals, protozoa, fungi, bacteria
73
Who created antibiotics?
- Alexander Flemming
- one common is basatrasin (named after tracy)
74
Spirochete
corkscrew shape
75
No flagella is atrichous, flagella all around is peritrichous
76
where is the motor found?
in the basal body
77
