Exam 1 Flashcards
(177 cards)
1
Q
What is research methods about?
A
About nowing things, how we know it, and differentiating between answers.
2
Q
What is epistemology?
A
The science of knowing; systems of knowledge
3
Q
What is methodology?
A
The science of finding out
4
Q
In research methods what do we recognize?
A
future circumastances are caused and conditioned by present ones
5
Q
What do we learn in research methods?
A
Such patterns of cause and effect are probalistic.
6
Q
The attempt to predict is often placed in the context of what?
A
Knowledge and understanding
7
Q
What is agreement reality?
A
these things we know as part and parcel of the culture we share with those around us
8
Q
As social scientist what do we want to do?
A
Make predictions about the world around us.
9
Q
What are the typical ways of knowing?
A
Experience, authority , tradition
10
Q
Inrelation to knowing, what does experience entail?
A
Things we developed as a sense of lived experiecne
11
Q
In relation to knowing, what does authority entail?
A
That we trust, gain, and become more knowledgable from those who we deem an authority figure who “knows” things or has a higher degree of knowledge than us.
12
Q
Un relation to knowing, what does tradtion entail?
A
Things that we learn from places like religion, or our culture, like for example thinking we gender binary exist etc
13
Q
What does social construction mean?
A
That things are the way they are because society has sculpted them into our ideologies, institutions, and identities. race, gender, etc.
14
Q
Our observations can and have been proven to be..
A
Inaccurate
15
Q
We can try to overcome inaccurate observations by doing what?
A
forging our measuremnt devices can make them more accurate.
16
Q
What are overgenrakizations?
A
Coming to a false or inaccurate conclusion, usually based on ideals like stereotypes.
17
Q
How do we avoid overgeneralizations?
A
Sampling- make sure we have adequate sample size
Replication- replicating a study to not rely on one facet of data
18
Q
What are selective obswervations?
A
When we look for cases that confirm our own beliefs.
19
Q
What is illogical reasoning?
A
coming up with conclusions that don’t necessarily justify them. IE: relying on stereotypes or outliers. execptions to the rule do not do not. disprove it
20
Q
What is Social science research based on?
A
Logic and observation
21
Q
What is a social theory?
A
Explains what is, not wat should be,
22
Q
What is the goal of social theory?
A
Explain things
23
Q
How do we generate social theory
A
Looking at patterns in the social behavior, aggregates not individuals, and social theory is an attempt to explain the bigger picture
24
Q
In relation to what we should observe what are the three crucial elements that comprise this?
A
Concept, variables and attributes.
25
What are concepts?
the overarching thing (Pay gap)
26
What are variables?
logicval set of attributes( SELF reported social class)
27
What are attributes
Chareteristics. so if self reported social class is an attribute a charecteristic would lower, middle upperclass
28
What is an independent variable
A variable that changes, or is subject to constant change. a variable that causes and effect on something
29
What is a dependent variable
A variable that's cange is ependent on another variable. effected by
30
What is the purpose of reasearch?
to be, exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory
31
What is exploratory?
We dont know anything about the subject we're going to do so we need to make observations and figure out what we're going to test
32
What is descriptive?
What something is through data and statistics but doesn't tell us why something is
33
What is explanatory?
Why something is the way it is?
34
What is induction?
Moving from specific observations to general principles
35
What is deduction
Start with general priciples like a thery or emprirical data and work backwards to observations
36
How do you measure your variables?
Qualitativer and quantitative
37
What is idographic?
What you're really trying to do is describe and be exuhstive and describe everything that describes the situation
38
What is nomothetic?
Trying to identify a few factors that identify / impact or predict outcomes.
39
What is Voluntary participation?
Having the people's participation be voluntary
40
What are some problems with voluntary participation?
1. People might respond dif. if they know the expirement.
| 2. Might draw a biased sample from people who want to participate
41
What are some problems with special populations and voluntary participation? (Prisoners, children, drug addicts)
Prisoners- might see participation correlating with leniency
Children- can't fully give cinsent w/o parents permission
drug addicts- can they consent when they're high, might be unethical to observe someone when they are impaired
42
What does No harm to Participants mean?
Whatever research we do, we must ensure, no harm comes to subjects. We must consider all types of harm (emotional, physical, psychological, social, mental)
43
In relation to "No harm to participants" What are safegaurds?
Processes or actions we can take to mitigate the harm possibly endured byu the participant
44
What does informed consent mean?
That the subject knows everything happening in the expirement and as a result they are able to give verbal commitment to continue.
45
What are ways we can document Informed consent?
Consent documents which IRB'S require you to have.
46
What does deception mean?
Specific expirements where we don't want the participant to know what we're looking at so there are no biased results
47
What are the major ethical questions with deception we should consider?
Can we get what we need w/o deception? Think of the Obedience to authority experiment, or, experiment dealing with fallen biker
48
If we do employ deception as a tactic for the experiment, what should we do after?
Debrief
49
What does debrief mean?
Interviewing subjects to learn about their experience in the project. It's especially important if theres a possibility they may have been damaged by the process.
50
What is Anonymity?
When neither the researchers nor the readers of the findings can identify a given response with a given respondent
51
What is Confidentiality?
When the researcher can identify a given person's response but promises not to release info publicly.
52
What is an IRB?
Institutional Review board
53
How do IRB's negate Anonymity?
By requiring researchers to use consent forms
54
What are the main ethical issues with analysis and reporting?
1. ethical obligation to scientific community
2. all results must be posted(positive or negative)
3. All limitations must be addressed
55
When it comes to Institutional Review Boards (IRB's) what are some exceptions where oversight of data is not overseen?
research in educational settings, observations of public behavior, and analysis of existing data
56
The ethics of social research deals mostly with what?
The methods employed
57
Political issues tend to what?
Center on the substance and use of research
58
There are no formal codes of acceptable political conduct, but there are for what?
Social research
59
Science achieves ______ Through _____?
Objectivity through intersubjectivity
60
What does the statement science achieves objectivity through intersubjectivity?
That sociology achieves objective data through personal relations with people so personal relations in social research?
61
Social research in relation to contested social issues cannot what...?
Remain antiseptically objective, but we do need to be specific in the positions we take when conducting research
62
What are the 4 main elements in relation to Politics, science and social research?
1. science is not untouched by politics
2. science does proceed in the midst of political controversy and hostility
3. An awareness of ideological considerations enriches the study and practice of social research metods
4. researchers should not let their own values interfere with the quality and honesty of their own research. (this does not mean that researches cannot or should not engage in public debates)
63
What are the three purposes of research?
Exploration- new topics | Description- what where when how | Explination (often nomothetic) why
64
What are the three overarching definitions of Nomothetic Causality?
1. The variables must be correlated
2. The cause takes place before the effect
3. The variables are non spurious (A third variable does not effect this)
65
In relation to Nomothetic Causality and Hypothesis testing, What are the 4 ways you test a hypothesis?
1. Specify Variables you think are related
2. specify measurements of variables
3. hypothesize correlation, strength of relationship, statistical significance
4. Specify tests for spuriousness (control variables
66
What are the False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality?
Complete causation, execptional cases, and majority cases
67
What do we mean by complete causation?
We do not need to say that something happens 100 percent of the time
68
What do we mean by exceptional cases?
We should not be dissuaded by outliers. They do not disprove the patterns
69
What do we mean by Majority of Cases?
We don't always need for something to happen a majority of the time to say that it is true
70
What is a Necessary cause?
something that represents a condition that must be present for the effect to follow
71
What is a Sufficient Cause?
Represents a condition that, if it is present guarantees the effect in question
72
In relation to necessary and sufficient causes, when do we achieve the most satisfying outcome?
When the outcome includes both necessary and sufficient causes
73
What are Units of Analysis?
Units that we study or are looking at
74
What are some examples of Units of Analysis?
Individuals, groups, organizations, social interactions, social artifacts
75
What are social artifacts?
Things people create, books, movies, media, art
76
What are social interactions?
Conversations, body lannguage
77
In relation to why units of analysis are important What is, The ecological fallacy?
The practice of drawing conclusions about the behavior of individuals within a social unit based solely on information about the social unit itself (Stereotypes)
78
In relation to why units of analysis are important What is, Reductionism?
Strict limitation (reduction) of the kinds of concepts to be considered relevant to the phenomenon under study.
79
In relation to reductionism, why is biological essentialism a good example.
Because it reduces peoples behavior to therir biology. w/o considering how individual components interact with one another
80
What is a cross sectional study?
One time only, Snapshot of whatever population is of intrest
81
What is a Longitudinal studyt?
A study that takes place over a long period of time through various different experiments at different points in time
82
In relation to Longitudinal studies, what is a, Trend?
study in which a given characteristic of some pop is monitored over time
83
In relation to Longitudinal studies, what is a, Cohort?
Looking at a particular sub population over time
84
In relation to Longitudinal studies, what is a, Panel?
Looks at a similar unit of analysis over time.
85
What is an example of how researchers can Approximate Longitudinal studies?
You can make sure your study has heterogeneous ages within the study as a surrogate for time
86
When designing a Research project What are the 5 major preliminary steps to consider to ensure your project is successful?
1. Define the purpose of your project- (exploratory, descriptive, explanatory)
2. determine whom or what to study- units of analysis
3. specify the meanings of each concept you want to study
4. Select a research method
5. determine how you will measure the results
87
What are the 8 elements of a research proposal?
1. problem or objective
2. literature review
3. subjects of study
4. measurement
5. data collection methods
6. analysis
7. schedule
8. budget
88
In relation to what social scientists measure, what are Direct Observables?
Physical charecteristics (sex, height, skin color) of a person being observed and/or interviewed
89
In relation to what social scientists measure, what are Indirect observables?
Charecteristics of a person as indicated by answers given in a self admninstered questionaire
90
In relation to what social scientists measure, what are , Constructs>?
Level of alienation as measured by a scale that is created by combining several direct and/ or indirect observables
91
In relation to conceptions, concepts, and reality, What is reality?
Reality is what we conceptualize it as (My answer not the books)
92
In relation to Conceptions, concepts, and reality, what is Agreement reality?
Concepts and Conceptualization, we all agreeon a term and make it a reality, IE we all agree the sky is blue, we all know what prejudice looks like.
93
What is Conceptualization?
The process through which we specify what we mean when we use particular terms in research
94
In relation to conceptualization, what can we no do?
Meaningfully answer a question without a working agreement about the meaning of the outcome
95
What does conceptualization process?
A specific, agreed upon meaning for a concept for the purposes of research. In doing so, two things are generated. Indicators and dimensions
96
What is an indicator?
An observation that we choose to consider as a reflection of a variable we wish to study. Thus, for example, attending religious services might be considered an indicator of religiosity
97
What is a dimension?
A specific aspect of a concept. IE: CONCEPT= PREJUDICE Dimension= sexism, racism, etc
98
As a practice question for conceptualization: what are the indicators and dimensions of Love?
Dimensions: romantic, plutonic love
Indicators: how opften do you think about the person
99
What does the Interchangeability of indicators refer to?
If several different indicators all represent to some degree the same concept then all of them will behave the same way that the concept will behave if it were real and could be observed. IF WE'RE CORRECT ABOUT WHAT WE'RE MEASURING THEN INDICATORS SHOULD BE CORRELATED.
100
In relation to creating conceptual order, what is conceptualization?
Creating broad concepts, , meanings and dimensions.
101
In relation to creating conceptual order, what is the Nominal Definition?
We have an idea, now we're going to name that idea more specifically. IE: Social class as representing the concept economic differences.
102
In relation to creating conceptual order, what is the Operational Definition?
The concrete and specific definition of something in terms of the operations by which observations are to be categorized. IE: Operational definition of earning an A in a course might be "correctly answering at least 90 percent of the questions on the final
103
In relation to creating conceptual order, what are Measurements in the real World?
Going out into the world and measuring what you study.
104
What is specification?
The process by which concepts are made more specific
105
Conceptualization is...?
The refinement and specification of abstract concepts
106
Operalization is...?
The development of specific research procedures, that will result in empirical observations representing those concepts in the real world.
107
What is the Range of Variation?
The variation or the differences in what we are measuring: IE social class
108
What does Variation between the extremes refer to?
How detailed we need to be : ex: there are various different democrats liberal moderate, extreme, and if conducting a study with a 37 yr old it's better to write 37 than in her 30's
109
It;s imprtant to remember that while there may be many dimmensions...?
To a concept, focus on which are important to your study
110
What is an Attribute?
A charecteristic or quality of something
111
What is a variable?
The logical sets of attributes.
112
Every variable must have two important qualities, what are those?
1. The attributes composing it should be exahustive
| 2. attributes should be mutually exclusive
113
In relation to levels of measurement, what are the 4 main levels?
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio
114
What is a Nominal Level of Measurement?
Variables that cannot be logically organized, and attributes that are merely different as distiguished from ordinal, interval or ratio. IE: Race, sex,
115
What is an Ordianal Measure (Levels of measurement)
A level of measurement describing a variable with attributes we can rank-order along some dimension. EX: Socioeconomic status, High, medium, low. OR, 1st 2n 3rd place
116
What is an Interval Measure?
A level of measurement describing a variable whose attributes are rank-ordered and have equal distances between adjacent atributes. IE: Farenheight thermometer. distance between 17-18 is the same as 89-90
117
What is a Ratio Measure?
A level of measurement describing a variable with attributes that have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval measures, and in addition have a TRUE ZERO point. Age is an example of this
118
What are three reasons describing why Levels of analysis are important?
1. Analyses require minimum levels of measurement
2. some variables can be treated as multiple levels of measurement
3. How do these considerations imact the data you will collect
119
What are single indicators?
One facet of the dimension you study to get your answe: IE: SEX
120
What are multiple indicators?
Multiple facets of the dimension you're studying to get a more comprehensive answe: IE: you would use multiple indicators to study college performance
121
In social sciences we discuss percision and accuracy in terms of what?
Reliability and Validity
122
What is Reliability?
Quality of measurement method that suggests that the same data would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon
123
What is an example of reliability?
The question Did you attend church last week would have more reliability each time then, about how many times did you attend church last week.
124
What is Validity?
A term describing a measure that accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure
125
What is an example of Validity?
Your IQ might seem like a more valid measurement of intelligence rather than how long you spend in the library
126
What is Test-Retest Method?
Taking the same measurements more than once, if you don't expect the information to change= reliable, if it does= the method might be unreliable
127
What is Split-Half Method?
Splitting the items or concepts you deem to accurately portray a concept and dividing those in half and dispersing those between two groups, and if you obtain similar results than those measurements in survey are reliable.
128
What are Established Measures?
Use measures that have proved their reliability in previous research.
129
What is A word of Csaution: Reliability of research workers?
Ex: Unreliability across different workers. if you measure happiness and one researcher is grumpy those repondants might not answer as accurately
130
In relation to how to examine validity, what are the 4 overarching conepts we use?
Face Validity, Criterion-related Validity, construct validity, and content validity
131
What is Face Validity?
That quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variable. IE The frequency someone attend church is an indicator of their religiousity on the face
132
What is Criterion-related validity?
The degree to which a measure related to some externbal criterion?
133
What is construct Validity?
The degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships
134
What is Content Validity?
The degree to which a measure covers the range of meanings included within a concept
135
In relation to nonprobablity sampling, what are the four overarching concepts?
Avaliable subjects, purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and quota sampling.
136
What is Non probability samnpling?
Any technique in which samples are selected in some way no suggested by probability theory
137
What are the advantages of non probability sampling?
1. ease of gathering data
2. not always able to identify all possible subjects
3. hard to reach populations
138
What are the disadvantages of non probability sampling?
1. potential for bias
2. cannot gauge how representative your sample is
3. difficult to generalize
139
In relation to non probability sampling, What does available subjects mean?
Convience or haphazard sampling such as stopping someone on the street.
140
In relation to non probability sampling, What does Purposive sampling mean?
Units to be observed are selected on the basis of the researchers judgement about which one's will be most useful of representative
141
When do researchers usually use purposive sampling?
With two group comparisons: liberal republican, and Deviant cases
142
In relation to non probability sampling, What does Snowball sampling mean?
Where each person involved in the study might be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing
143
In relation to non probability sampling, What does Quota Sampling mean?
A form of nonprobablity sampling in which units are selected base on prespecified charecteristics. so that the total sample will have the same distribution of charecteristics assumed to exisit in pop. However, not random, and selected to meet a quota
144
In relation to field research what are informants?
Someone who is well versed in the social phenomenon youa restudying and who is willing to tell you what they know, and can get you access to other members of community
145
What are some issues with a informant?
The ones who are willing to participate might be the ones somewhat marginal or atypical within their group
146
What is Probability sampling?
The general term for samples selected in accord with probability theory, typivcally involving some random selection mechanism
147
Proability sampling is often used for what?
Large scale surveys
148
A sample of individuals from a pop must contain the same what?
Variations that exsist in the population
149
In relation to probability sampling what biases are ther?
Concious, and unconscious
150
What is conscious bias?
When researcher does something to sample the bias
151
What is unconcious bias?
Researcher not realizing that they biased the sample
152
What are ways one can avoid sampling bias?
Representativeness, and probability of selection
153
What is representativeness?
The sample having the same distribution of charecteristics
| (race) as the population from which it was selected
154
What is EPSEM (Equal Probability of selection method)?
A sample design in which each member of a specific population has an equal chance of being selected into the population
155
What are the advantages of probability sampling?
1. More representative because biases avoided
| 2. Prob theory permits researchers to estimate accuracy or representativeness of sample
156
What are the Disadvantages of Probability sampling
Cost and effort involved
157
What are the 3 things you should be able to identify to ensure representativeness?
element, pop, and study pop
158
What is element?
the unit of which a population is composed and which is selected in a sample- IE: College student
159
What is a Population
The thoretically specified aggregateof the elements in the study
160
What is the study pop?
The aggregation of elements from which the sample is actually selected:
161
What is a population parameter?
The summary description of a given variable in a population : IE: mean income of all families
162
What is a Sample statistic?
The summary description of a variable in a sample, used to estimate pop parameter: ex: 3 samples at different percentages used to estimate the mean parameter
163
What is Sampling error?
The degree of error used due to the fact you are studying a sample and not everyone
164
What is Confidence level?
The estimated prob that a population parameter lies within a given confidence interval: IE: we are 99 percent confident x is 35-45
165
What is Confidence interval
The range of values within a poulation parameter. IE: 35-45
166
What is Sampling Frame?
Th list if units composing a population from which a sample is selected, if pop is to be rep, then essential that sampling frame reflects the pop
167
What is Simple Random Sampling?
Units composing a population are assigned # a set of random # generated and units matching those # are included in study
168
What is Systematic sampling?
A type of probability sampling in which every Kth unit is selected for unit in sample. IE every 25th person
169
What is Sampling interval?
The standard distance between elements selected from a pop for a sample: POP SIZE/ SAMPLE SIZE
170
What is A sampling ratio?
The proportion of elements in the pop that are selected to be in a sample. SAMPLE SIZE/ POP SIZE
171
What is Stratification?
The grouping of units composing a population into homogenous groups (stratas) before sampling
172
What is Stratified sampling
Dividing your units into different groups may be based on race, sex, etc
173
What is implicit stratification?
Implicitly startifying catergories??
174
What is Cluster Sampling?`
Multistage sampling in which natural groups are samples initially with the members of each selected group being sub-sampled aftyerwas
175
When is cluster sampling used?
WWhen it is not pracgtical or possible to create a list of all elements that compose the target population
176
What is Probability Proportiante to size sampling?
selected according to their sizes
177
What is Disproportianate sampling and weighting?
Weighting- Accoubnts for the differences of probabilities of selection. each case is given a weight equal to it's probablity of selection
