exam 2 ajs Flashcards
(127 cards)
1
Q
pre-testing
A
The measurement of the dependent variable among subjects.
2
Q
post testing
A
The remeasurement of a dependent variable among subjects after they’ve been exposed to an independent variable
3
Q
experimental group
A
in experimentation, a group of subjects to whom an experimental stimulus is administered
4
Q
Control group
A
in experimentation, a group of subjects to whom no experimental stimulus is administered and who should resemble the experimental group in all other respects. A comparison of the control group and experimental group at the end of the experiment points to the effect of the experimental stimulus
5
Q
double-blind experiment
A
An experimental design in which neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which is the experimental group andwhich is the control group
6
Q
randomization
A
A technique for assigning experimental subjects to experimental and control groups randomly.
7
Q
matching
A
in connection with experiments, the procedure whereby pairs of subjects are matched on the basis of their similarities on one or more variables, and one member of the pair is assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group.
8
Q
internal invalidity
A
refers to the possibility that the conclusions drawn from experimental results may not accurately reflect what went on in the experiment itself.
9
Q
external invalidity
A
refers to the possibility that conclusions drawn from experimental results may not be generalizable to the “real” world.
10
Q
respondent
A
A person who provides data for analysis by responding to her survey questionnaire.
11
Q
questionnaire
A
A document containing questions and other types of items designed to solicit information appropriate for analysis. Questionnaires are used primarily on survey research but also in experiments, field research, and other modes of observation.
12
Q
Open ended questions.
A
questions for which the respondent is asked to provide his or her own answers. In-depth, qualitative interviewing relies almost exclusively on open ended questions.
13
Q
closed ended questions
A
Survey questions in which the respondent is asked to select an answer from among a list provided by the researcher. Popular in survey research because they provide a greater uniformity of responses and are more easily processed then open ended questions.
14
Q
bias
A
that quality of a measurement device that tends to result in a misrepresentation of what is being measured in a particular direction. For example, the questionnaire item ‘‘Don’t you agree that the president is doing a good job?’’ would be biased in that it would generally encourage more favorable responses.
15
Q
contingency question
A
a survey question intended for only some respondents, determined by their responses to some other question. For example, all respondents might be asked whether they belong to the cosa nostra, and only those who said yes would be asked how often they go to company meetings and picnics. The latter would be a contingency question.
16
Q
matrix questions
A
offer an efficient format for presenting a set of closed- ended questionnaire items that have the same response categories.
17
Q
response rate
A
the number of people participating in a survey divided by the number selected in the sample, in the form of a percentage.This is also called the the completion rate or, in self- administered surveys, the return rate: the percentage of questionnaires sent out that are returned.
18
Q
interview
A
A data- collection encounter in which one person ( an interviewer) asks questions of another ( a respondent). Interviews may be conducted face-to face- or by telephone.
19
Q
probe
A
a technique employed in interviewing to solicit a more complete answer to a question. It is a nondirective phrase or question used to encourage a respondent to elaborate on an answer. Examples include ‘’ Anything more?’’ and ‘’ How is that?’’
20
Q
random-digit dialing
A
a sampling technique in which random numbers are selected from within the ranges of numbers assigned to active telephones.
21
Q
computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI)
A
A data- collection technique in which a telephone- survey questionnaire is stored in a computer, permitting the interviewer to read the questions from the monitor and enter the answers on the computer keyboard.
22
Q
secondary analysis
A
a form of research in which the data collected and processed by one researcher are reanalyzed- often for a different purpose- by another. This is especially appropriate in the case of survey data. Data archives are repositories or libraries for the storage and distribution of data for secondary analysis.
23
Q
reactivity
A
the problem that the subjects of social research may react to the fact of being studied, thus altering their behavior from what it would have been normally.
24
Q
naturalism
A
an approach to field research based on the assumption that an objective social reality exists and can be observed and reported accurately.
25
ethnography
a report on social life that focuses on detailed and accurate description rather than explanation.
26
ethnomethodology
an approach to the study of social life that focuses on the discovery of implicit, usually unspoken assumptions and agreements; this method often involves the intentional breaking of agreements as a way of revealing their existence.
27
grounded theory
An inductive approach to the study of social life that attempts to generate a theory from the constant comparing of unfolding observations. This is very different from hypothesis testing, in which theory is used to generate hypotheses to be tested through observations.
28
case study
The in-depth examination of a single instance of some social phenomenon, such as a village, a family, or a juvenile gang.
29
extended case method
a technique developed by Michael Burawoy in which case study observations are used to discover flaws in and to improve existing social theories.
30
institutional ethnography
a research technique in which the personal experiences of individuals are used to reveal power relationships and other characteristics of the institutions within which they operate.
31
participatory action research (PAR)
an approach to social research in which the people being studied are given control over the purpose and procedures of the research; intended as a counter to the implicit view that researchers are superior to those they study.
32
emancipatory research
research conducted for the purpose of benefiting disadvantaged groups.
33
rapport
an open and trusting relationship; especially important in qualitative research between researchers and the people they're observing.
34
qualitative interview
contrasted with survey interviewing, the qualitative interview is based on a set of topics to be discussed in depth rather than based on the use of standardized questions.
35
focus group
a group of subjects interviewed together, prompting a discussion. The technique is frequently used by market researchers, who ask a group of consumers to evaluate a product or discuss a type of commodity, for example.
36
evaluation research
research undertaken for the purpose of determining the impact of some social intervention, such as a program aimed at solving a social problem.
37
needs assessment studies
studies that aim to determine the existence and extent of problems, typically among a segment of the population, such as the elderly.
38
cost benefit studies
studies that determine whether the results of a program can be justified by its expense (both financial and other)
39
monitoring studies
studies that provide a steady flow of information about something of interest, such as crime rates or the outbreak of an epidemic.
40
program evaluation/ outcome assessment
the determination of whether a social intervention is producing the intended result.
41
quasi experiments
Non-rigorous inquiries somewhat resembling controlled experiments but lacking key elements such as pre- and post-testing and/or control groups.
42
time-series design
a research design that involves measurements made over some period, such as the study of traffic accident rates before and after lowering the speed limit.
43
nonequivalent control group
a control group that is similar to the experimental group but is not created by the random assignment of subjects. This sort of control group differs significantly from the experimental group in terms of the dependent variable or variables related to it.
44
multiple time- series designs
The use of more than one set of data that were collected over time, as in accident rates over time in several states or cities, so that comparisons can be made.
45
social indicators
Measurements that reflect the quality or nature of social life, such as crime rates, infant mortality rates, number of physicians per 100,000 population, and so forth. Social indicators are often monitored to determine the nature of social change in a society.
46
experiments involve what
taking action and observing consequences of that action
47
what types of projects are experiments good for
they are well suited for projects involving limited and well defined concepts and propositions. Such as hypothesis testing, better suited for explanatory than descriptive, and good for small group interaction.
48
what are the three major components of a classical experiment.
1. independent and dependent variables. 2. pre testing and post testing. 3. experimental and control groups.
49
independent variable
cause in the case of experiments we refer to this as the stimulus ( present or not present)
50
dependent variable
the effect.
51
why would a double blind experiment be used.
to reduce experimenter bias.
52
how representative of a sample is probability sampling.
the degree of resemblance ( representativeness) achieved by probability sampling is largely a function of the sample size. As a general guideline, probability samples of less than 100 are not deemed to be terribly representative, and social science experiments seldom involve that many subjects in either experimental or control groups.
53
is probability sampling used to select subjects from a larger population?
no it is seldom used for this. However the logic of random selection is used when researchers assign subjects to groups.
54
what are the two arguments in favor of randomization over matching
1. you may not be in a position to know in advance which variables will be relevant for the matching process. 2. Most of the statistics used to analyze the results of experiments assume randomization.
55
When does randomization or matching make better sense.
randomization only makes sense if you have a fairly large pool of subjects. This is so that the laws of probability sampling apply.
56
when does matching make sense
when you have a limited number of subjects.
57
can researchers mix matching and randomization.
yes sometimes they can be combined.
58
what is the one shot case study
the researcher measures a single group of subjects on a dependent variable following the administration of some experimental stimulus.
59
what is an example of a one shot case study.
showing a Muslim history film to a group of people and then administer a questionnaire that seems to measure prejudice against Muslims.
60
What is the flaw of the one shot case study.
it lacks a pretest so we can't be sure if the experimental stimulus caused the change in the respondents attitude.
61
one group pre-test post- test design
this adds a pretest for the experimental group but lacks a control group.
62
what is the flaw of the one group pre-test post- test design?
it suffers from the possibility that some factor other than the independent variable might cause a change between the pretest and post- test results.
63
how does the flaw of the one group pre- test post- test relate to the Muslim video example?
a Muslim leader may have been Assassinated but we cant be sure that the film is what caused the reduction in prejudice.
64
what is the static group comparison
is based on experimental and control groups but has no pre- tests.
65
what is the static group comparison in the muslim video.
we might show the muslim history film to one group and not to another and then measure prejudice in both groups.
66
how is the static group comparison flawed in this example.
If the experimental group had less prejudice at the end of the experiment, we might believe the film was responsible. However unless we had randomized our subjects we would not know whether the two groups had the same degree of prejudice to start with.
67
what is the one shot case study deemed good for.
it represents a common form of logical reasoning in everyday life.
68
what is the threat of history?
During the course of the experiment historical events may occur that confound the experimental results.
69
what is the threat of maturation.
People are continually growing and changing, and such changes can affect the results of the experiment.
70
what is the threat of testing
often the process of testing and retesting influences people's behavior, thereby confounding the experimental results.
71
what is the threat of instrumentation
IF we use different measures of the dependent variable in the pretest and post-test how can we sure they are comparable to each other.
72
statistical regression
sometimes its appropriate to conduct experiments on subjects who start out with extreme scores on the dependent variable. There is a danger, then, that changes occurring by virtue of subject's starting out in extreme positions will be attributed erroneously to the effects of the experimental stimulus.
73
selection biases
Comparisons don't have any meaning unless the groups are comparable at the start of an experiment.
74
experimental mortality
often experimental subjects will drop out of the experiment before it has been completed, and this can affect statistical comparisons and conclusions.
75
causal time order
ambiguity about the time order of the experimental stimulus and the dependent variable can arise. Whenever this occurs, the research
conclusion that the stimulus caused the dependent variable can be challenged with the explanation that the '' dependent'' variable actually caused changes in the stimulus.
76
diffusion or imitation of treatments
when experimental and control group subjects can communicate with each other, experimental subjects may pass on some elements of the experimental stimulus to the control group.
77
compensation
subjects in the control group are often deprived of something considered to be of value. In such cases, there may be pressures to offer some kind of compensation. In such a situation the control group is no longer a genuine control group.
78
compensatory rivalry
in real life experiments the subjects deprived of the experimental stimulus may try to compensate for the missing stimulus by working harder.
79
demoralization
on the other hand, feelings of deprivation within the control group may result in their giving up. In educational experiments, demoralized control- group subjects may stop studying, act up, or get angry.
80
strengths of the experimental method
the chief advantage of a controlled experiment lies in the isolation of the experimental variables impact over time. further because individual experiments are often rather limited in scope, requiring relatively little time and money and relatively few subjects we often can replicate a given experiment several times using several different groups of subjects. Also as in all other forms of scientific research, replication of research findings strengthens our confidence in the validity and generalizability of those findings. they lend themselves to a logical rigor that is often much more difficult to achieve in other modes of observation.
Experiments are especially well-suited for research projects involving
limited concepts, well-defined concepts, and hypothesis testing.
81
weaknesses of the experimental method.
the greatest weakness lies in their artificiality. Social processes that occur in a laboratory setting might not necessarily occur in natural social settings.
82
when is it appropriate to use open ended questions
in depth qualitative interviewing relies almost exclusively on open ended questions. Also used in survey research. When you want more detailed answers on a topic that can't be answered by closed ended questions.
83
when is it appropriate to use closed ended questions.
are very popular in survey research because they provide a greater uniformity of responses and are more easily processed than open ended ones.
84
what to avoid when asking survey questions
```
Select appropriate question forms.
Make items clear.
Avoid double-barreled questions.
Respondents must be competent to answer.
Respondents must be willing to answer.
Questions should be relevant.
Avoid negative items.
Avoid biased items and terms.
```
85
what is the general questionnaire format
Uncluttered, one question per line, consistent format
86
why is it important to pretest a questionnaire.
to protect against errors such as an ambiguous question, one that people cannot answer, or some other violation of the rules.
87
what are the difficulties with mail questionnaires
people are busy and may not want to take the time to mail them out. people may avoid them. it takes a long time to send them all out, and input the data. People may see it as junk mail.
88
how can problems with mail questionnaries be adressed.
using a self mailing questionnaire which requires no return envelope. By listing the return address and postage. Pay for the postage so all they have to do is put it in their mailbox.
89
what are the advantages of survey interviews over questionnaires?
the presence of an interviewer also generally decreases the number of ''don't knows'' and ''no answers''. Higher response rates. People are more reluctant to turn down a person than a questionnaire. If a person doesn't understand a question clearly the interviewer can clarify. Can observe respondents as well as ask questions.
90
what are the five general rules for successful interviewing.
1. dress appropriately. 2. be familiar with questionnare. 3.follow question wording exactly. 4. record responses exactly. 5. probe when necessary.
91
what are the advantages and disadvantages of telephone surveys.
limited to people who have telephones. in 2003 95.5 percent of people had telephones. if done from a telephone book would not include those who had their numbers omitted. cheaper and more time efficient. people will most likely not answer if they don't recognize the number.
92
what are the advantages and disadvantages of telephone surveys.
limited to people who have telephones. in 2003 95.5 percent of people had telephones. if done from a telephone book would not include those who had their numbers omitted. cheaper and more time efficient. people will most likely not answer if they don't recognize the number. you can dress anyway you want Cell phones are excluded from telephone surveys.
93
how do random digit dialing and computer assisted telephone interviewing overcome some of the weaknesses of the telephone survey.
random digit dialing can help randomly select numbers efficiently that might not be listed in the phonebook.
94
how do random digit dialing and computer assisted telephone interviewing overcome some of the weaknesses of the telephone survey.
random digit dialing can help randomly select numbers efficiently that might not be listed in the phone book. computer assisted telephone interviewing automatically prepares the data for analysis.in Computer assisted telephone interviewing the researcher can begin analyzing the data before the interviewing is complete. This helps gain an advanced view of how the analysis will turn out. Is also cost effective cuts out the labor of hiring human beings.
95
What are the strengths and weaknesses of self administered questionnaires.
Cheap and fast. More willingness to answer controversial items.
96
what are the strengths and weaknesses of interview surveys.
fewer incomplete questionnaires. More effective for complicated questionnaires. Possible response biases.
97
What are the strengths and weaknesses of telephone surveys
cheaper and more time efficent. not everyone has a phone. cell phones not included.
98
online surveys
available software and websites.
99
qualitative field research compared with surveys and experiments.
it can give a comprehensive perspective to research. by going directly to the social phenomenon under study and observing it as completely as possible, researchers can develop a deeper and fuller understanding of it. as such, this mode of observation is especially, though not exclusively, appropriate to resarch topics and social studies that appear to defy simple quantification. Also may recognize several nuances of attitude and behavior that might escape researchers using other methods. Is especially appropriate for the study of those attitudes and behaviors best understood within their natural setting as opposed to somewhat artifical settings of experiments and surveys. Field research is well suited for the study of social processes over time.
100
types of research topics appropriate for field research.
1. practices: various kinds of behavior, such as talking or reading a book. 2. episodes: a variety of events such as divorce, crime, and illness. 3. encounters: two or more people meeting and interacting. 4. Roles and social types: the analysis of the positions people occupy and the behavior associated with those positions: occupations, family roles, ethnic groups. 5. Social and personal relationships: behavior appropriate to pairs or sets of roles: mother-son relationships, friendships, and the like. 6. groups and cliques: small groups, such as friendship cliques, athletic teams, and work groups. 7. organizations: formal organizations, such as hospitals or schools. 8. Settlements and habits: small scale ''societies'' such as villages, ghettos, and neighborhoods, as opposed to large societies such as nations which are difficult to study. 9. Social worlds: ambiguous social entities with vague boundaries and populations, such as ''the sports world'' and ''wall street''. 10. subcultures and lifestyles: how large numbers of people adjust to life in groups such as a ''ruling class'' or an ''urban underclass''.
101
full participant.
goes about ordinary life in a role or set of roles constructed in the setting.
102
complete observer
engages not at all in social interaction and may even shun involvement in the world being studied.
103
what is thematizing in interview process
clarifying the purpose of the interviews and the concepts to be explored.
104
what is designing in the interview process
laying out the process through which you'll accomplish your purpose, including a consideration of the ethical dimension.
105
what is interviewing in the interview process
doing the actual interviews
106
what is transcribing in the interview process
creating a written text of the interviews
107
Analyzing in the interview process
determining the meaning of gathered materials in relation to the purpose of the study
108
verifying in the interview process
checking the reliability and validity of the materials.
109
reporting in the interview process.
telling others what you've learned.
110
focus group
a group of subjects interviewed together, prompting a discussion. The technique is frequently used by market researchers, who ask a group of consumers to evaluate a product or discuss a type of commodity, for example.
111
five advantages of focus groups.
1. the technique is a socially oriented research method capturing real life data in a social environment. 2. it has flexibility 3. it has high face validity. 4.it has speedy results 5. it is low in cost
112
ethical issues involved in qualitative field research
1. is it ethical to talk to people when they do not know you will be recording their words? 2. is it ethical to get information for your own purposes from people you hate? 3. is it ethical to see a severe need for help and not respond to it directly. 4. is it ethical to be in a setting or situation but not commit yourself wholeheartedly to it? 5. is it ethical to develop a calculated stance toward other humans, that is, to be strategic in your relations? 6. Is it ethical to take sides or to avoid taking sides in a factionalized situation? 7. is it ethical to ''pay'' people with trade-offs for access to their lives and minds? 8. Is it ethical to ''use'' people as allies or informants in order to gain entree to other people or to elusive understandings?
113
strengths of qualitative field research.
especially effective for studying subtle nuances in attitudes and behaviors and for examining social processes over time. Chief strength lies in the depth of understanding it permits. Flexibility. Can be relatively inexpensive.
114
weaknesses of qualitative field research
being qualitative rather than quantitative, it's not an appropriate means for arriving at statistical descriptions of a large population.
115
focus groups
advantages: fast, flexible, low cost. disadvantages: researcher has less control, logistically difficult, analytically difficult.
116
strengths of qualitative field research
```
Effective for studying subtle nuances in attitudes and behaviors and social
processes over time
Flexibility
Inexpensive
```
117
how reliability and validity relate to qualitative field research
validity- greater than survey and experimental measurements. field researchers commonly give detailed illustrations. reliability- potential problems with reliability. Even though they are very in depth measurements are often very personal. be wary of purely descriptive measurements.
118
topics appropriate for field research
topics that defy simple quantification. Attitudes and behaviors best understood in their natural setting. Social processes that occur over time.
119
topics appropriate for field research
practices ( behaviors). Episodes ( events). Encounters. social and personal relationships. Groups and cliques. Organizations. roles and social types. Subcultures and lifestyles.
120
how should you record observations in qualitative field research.
take detailed notes but balance with observations. rewrite notes with observations soon after observations with filled in details. record everything.
121
why is it important to specify and measure interventions in evaluation research.
combining complementary measures with proper control- group designs should allow you to pinpoint the effects of the program you're evaluating. so you can specify the control and experimental group. So you can define the population for whom it is appropriate.
122
what are experimental contexts
those aspects of the context of an experiment researchers think might affect the experiment.
123
advice for operationalizing sucess or failure of an operation
ultimately, the criteria of success and failure are often a matter of agreement. make sure the research design measures the specified outcome. researchers must take measurement seriously in evaluation research, carefully determining all the variables to be measured and getting appropriate measures for each.
124
why is evaluation research particularly subject to logistical problems.
they grow out of the fact that it occurs within the context of real life. takes place within frequently uncontrollable daily life. Lack of control can create real dilemmas for the researcher.
125
social intervention
researchers use social indicators to monitor aspects of social life. finding out whether death penalty lowers the murder rate.
126
definition of qualitative field research
research that more typically yields qualitative data: observations not easily reduced to numbers.although there can be quantitative it is typically qualitative.
127
topics appropriate for evaluation research.
needs assessment studies, cost benefit studies, monitoring studies, and program evaluations/ outcome assessments. Is sometimes coupled with the intentions of participatory action research.
