Exam #1 Flashcards
(116 cards)
1
Q
Why are theories important? (3)
A
- Organize what we know into coherent set of principles
- Form testable hypotheses about children’s behavior
- Interpret findings
2
Q
Continuous development
A
Change is gradual and smooth, each experience builds on earlier experiences
3
Q
Discontinuous development
A
Change occurs in discrete steps with qualitative differences at each step
4
Q
Overlapping waves for development
A
Variability in social behavior at a given point in time, change happens as children adopt new strategies
5
Q
Current view of development (continuous or discontinuous)
A
Continuous but interspersed with transitional periods
6
Q
Case study: Genie
A
Nature vs nurture, locked in basement, after certain amount of years passed she couldn’t learn how to talk
7
Q
Current view of nature vs nuture
A
Both are important and interact, expression of biological characteristics is shaped by environmental circumstances
8
Q
Current view of whether social development is universal across cultures
A
Some universal aspects but need to understand cultural variation
9
Q
Rogoff’s research
A
Culture, Mayan vs US children, Mayan children better at attention and learning
10
Q
Equifinality
A
Pathway, convergence, two children follow different paths to reach same outcome
11
Q
Multifinality
A
Pathway, divergence, two children start out similarly but end up at different points
12
Q
Early view on what role children play in their own development
A
Passive role, children shaped by external forces
13
Q
Current view on what role children play in their own development
A
Active role, children explore and seek out info about world, participate in exchanges with others, shape own development
14
Q
What makes for a “good” theory? (3)
A
- Parsimonious- simple
- Falsifiable- testable
- Applicable-practical relevance
15
Q
Psychodynamic Perspectives: Freud
A
Development driven by unconscious instincts: sex, aggression, hunger
Shaped by relationships with others (mostly parents)
16
Q
Freud’s psychosexual stages of development
A
Oral —> anal —> phallic (learns differences between males and females) —> latency (little or no sexual motivation) —> genital
17
Q
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
A
Extended stages through adulthood, emphasized social environment over biology, specified tasks that must be accomplished at each stage, risks of failing to accomplish
18
Q
Erikson’s stages
A
- Trust vs mistrust (0-1 years)
- Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3 years)- assert independence
- Initiative vs guilt (3-6 years)-responsibility and ambition
- Industry vs inferiority (6-12 years)-master tasks
- Identity vs confusion (12-20 years)
- Intimacy vs isolation (20-30 years)
- Generatively vs stagnation (30-65 years)-raise children, generative career, give back to community
- Integrity vs Despair (65+ years)
19
Q
Strengths of Freud and Erikson
A
Emphasis on effects of early experience and social interactions on development, introduced concepts (attachment, gender roles, morality, identity)
20
Q
Weaknesses of Freud and Erikson
A
Difficult to test empirically
Just Freud: not based directly on work with children
Just Erikson: mechanisms for transitioning across stages not identified
21
Q
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
A
Transactional focus: children as agents in exploring and making sense of their environment
22
Q
2 important processes for Piaget’s theory
A
- Assimilation- fit new info into existing schema
2. Accommodation- modify existing schema in response to new info
23
Q
Piaget’s theory stages (4)
A
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
24
Q
Piaget’s sensorimotor period
A
0-2 years, differentiates self from objects and other people, imitate and engage in imaginative play, basic understanding of causality, develops object permanence
25
Piaget’s preoperational period
2-7 years, begins to use language and symbols, perspective is egocentric (can’t see perspective of others), irreversible, centered
26
Piaget’s concrete operations period
7-12 years, reasons logically about present objects, organizes objects into classes and series, grasps concept of conservation (ex: liquid in glass), can take another’s perspective
27
Piaget’s formal operations period
12+ years, thinking is flexible and complex, can consider abstract ideas and hypotheses
28
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
Development is best understood as a product of social interactions, especially with more skilled people
29
Zone of proximal development
Things the learner can do with help
30
Strengths of Piaget and Vygotsky
Based on direct work with children, links between cognition and social relations
31
Weaknesses of Piaget and Vygotsky
Piaget: series of universal, invariant, stages is contextually and culturally limited
Vygotsky: measurement of ZPD is difficult
32
Classical conditioning
Pavlov and Watson, new stimulus is paired with familiar stimulus until individual responds to new in the same way as familiar
33
Operant conditioning
Skinner, reinforcement learning: rewards increase the likelihood that behavior will recur, punishment decreases likelihood
34
Strengths/weaknesses of traditional learning theories (conditioning)
Strength: useful for explaining certain aspects of development
Weaknesses: overemphasis on behavior with neglect of individual differences
35
Bandura’s cognitive social learning theory
Importance of observational learning, demonstrated that children who watched another person behaving aggressively were likely to imitate that person
36
Bandura’s observations
Children do not imitate automatically, cognition is part of process, children must pay attention and be able to remember and reproduce it
37
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura, children reciprocally influence the model
38
Bandura’s strengths
Considerable empirical evidence, many practical applications
39
Bandura’s weaknesses
Not very developmental in scope, minimal attention to individual differences
40
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory
Child’s world is organized as a set of nested systems or contexts, development is affected by interactions between and within systems, processes are culture-specific
41
Bronfenbrenner’s Systems
Microsystem —> mesosystem —> exosystem—> macrosystem
42
Microsystem
Context in which children live and interact with the people and institutions closest to them
43
Mesosystem
Interrelations among components of microsystem
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Exosystem
Settings that influence development but in which the child does not play a direct role
45
Macrosystem
Values, ideologies, and laws of society and culture
46
Chronosystem
Overarching changes within the child or in one of the systems
47
Bronfenbrenner’s strengths/weaknesses
Strengths: attention to broad range of influential social contexts
Weaknesses: describes, but does not explain, development, too broad to test
48
Ethological theory
To understand behavior, must view in a particular setting, times when we are most sensitive to particular types of stimuli, must study in relation to organism’s biology
49
Evolutionary development theory
Ancestors developed complex skills to ensure survival
50
Method: correlation, involves determining (2 things)
1. Direction 2. Magnitude of systematic relations between variables
51
Strengths of correlation
Useful for describing patterns in development as they naturally occur, starting place for unexplored areas of research
52
Strengths/weaknesses for lab experiment
Strength: able to make claims about cause and effect relations (because of independent value manipulation and random assignment)
Weakness: can lack ecological validity
53
Strengths/ weaknesses of field experiment
Strength: able to make claims about cause and effect relations, can be more ecologically valid
Weakness: some things cannot ethically be manipulated
54
Method: intervention
Takes knowledge from correlational, lab, and field research and attempts to make a positive impact on an aspect of development
55
Method: natural experiment
Aka quasi-experiment, researchers monitor the impact of changes that occur without their intervention
56
Strengths/weaknesses of reports
Strengths: wide-scale implantation at low cost, ask private questions in surveys, tailor interviews to individual
Weaknesses: social desirability
57
Gathering data: structures observation
Create a situation in which the behavior of interest is likely to occur, ex: “still face” design (baby cries when mother didn’t respond)
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Gathering data: coding observations
Event sampling: only when a specific event occurs
Time sampling: any of a set of behaviors that occurs within a specific time frame
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Observations strengths/weaknesses
Strengths: generalizability and external validity are high
Weaknesses: influence of being observed, observer bias (can use blind coders), less control for isolating causes
60
Gathering data: psychophysiological techniques
Examine physical and psychological processes that occur when children encounter social stimuli (heart rate, respiration, EEG, fMRI, hormone levels)
61
Cross sectional design
Multiple groups compared at same time
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Longitudinal design
Studies same group of children over period of time
63
Sequential design
Combination of cross sectional and longitudinal designs, following several differently aged cohorts over time
64
Infant directed speech
Auditory preparation, “baby talk”
65
Contingent interactions
Infants learn that they can be an initiator and a responder
66
Visual cortex development
3 months: preference for faces
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Auditory cortex development
18-24 months: language development
68
Prefrontal cortex development
5-7 years: executive processes
69
Synaptic pruning
Eliminates under-stimulated connections
70
Experiment-expectant processes
Rely on the experiences that are expected in children’s normal environments (ex: learning native language)
71
Experiment-dependent processes
Rely on experiences that are unique to individuals (ex: learning how to juggle)
72
Passive gene-environment associations
Parents provide genes and environments for children, environments match and encourage genetic predispositions
73
Evocative gene-environment association
Child’s genetic tendencies elicit reactions from their environments
74
Active gene-environment association
Children seek out experiences compatible with their inherited tendencies
75
Gene environment interactions
Occur when the environment has an impact on the degree to which genetic influences are expressed
76
Gene environment interactions
Mothers with DRD2 gene became harsh parents during hard times
77
Temperament
Individual differences in reactivity (affect, emotion) and self-regulation (attention, self-soothing)
78
Thomas and Chess temperament categories (3)
1. Easy (40%)- flexible, friendly, happy, adaptable
2. Difficult (10%)- feisty, irregular, moody
3. Slow to warm up (15%)- fearful, low in activity level, high in withdraw but adapt with exposure
79
Rothbart temperament dimensions (3)
1. Effortful control- ex: marshmallow test
2. Negative affectivity-frustration, fear, discomfort, sadness, soothability
3. Surgency- low shyness, impulsivity
80
Measuring temperament
Parental report, researcher observations, physiological measures, molecular genetics
81
Ages when different aspects of temperament can be observed
- Newborns: distress, avoidance
- 1-2 months: smile, approach
- 2-3 months: anger, frustration
- 7-10 months: fear
- 2+ years: effortful control
82
Big Five Personality Factors
Extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness
83
Goodness of fit
Match between child’s temperament and environment
84
Attachment
Strong emotional bond that forms between infant and caregiver within first year
85
Psychoanalytic theory of attachment
Oral stage, mothers satisfy need for sucking (Freud)
86
Psychosocial theory of attachment
Task of developing trust (Erikson)
87
Learning theory of attachment
Attachment because of feeding (ex: Harlow's money experiment)
88
Cognitive development theory of attachment
Requirement of object permanence (Piaget)
89
Ethological theory of attachment
Bowlby proposed that attachment is result of biologically programmed responses from infant and mother, adapted idea of imprinting, emphasized secure base
90
Strange Situation
Used to gauge exploration, reactions, stranger anxiety
91
Ainsworth's attachment classification from strange situation
1. Secure (~65%)
2. Insecure-avoidant (~20%)
3. Insecure-ambivalent (~10%)
4. Insecure-disorganized (~5%)
92
Insecure-avoidant
Little concern for parent's absence, active avoidance at reunion, ignoring parent
93
Insecure-ambivalent
Unable to use parent as secure base, distressed by parent's absence, but show anger/resentment upon reunion, seek contact then reject
94
Insecure-disorganized
Greatest insecurity, contradictory patterns of behavior
95
Assessing attachment
Attachment Q-sets, mother sorts 90 statements into sets ranging from "describes very well" to "least descriptive", score reflects how securely attached a child is
96
Attachment in different cultures
Infants in different cultures have different amounts of experiment being left alone by mother
More insecure-ambivalent in Kenya, PR, Japan, and Uganda
More insecure-avoidant in Germany, Sweden, and UK
97
Hazan and Shaver (1987)-stability in attachment
How adults approach intimate relationships
- Secure (50%)
- Avoidant (30%)
- Ambivalent (20%)
98
Emotions
Subjective reaction to something in the environment, accompanied by some form of physiological arousal, communicated to others through expression or action
99
3 components of emotion
Emotional expression, understanding, regulation
100
Biological perspective of emotion
Emotional expressions are innate, universal
101
Learning perspective of emotion
Differences in emotional expression based on environment
102
Functional perspective of emotion
Emotions are relational, guides others' behavior, memories of past emotions shape responding
103
Primary emotions
Sadness, surprise, joy, interest, anger, fear, disgust, distress
104
Duchenne smile
Real smile, seen in eyes, hard to fake
105
What makes infants vs toddlers laugh
7-9 months: tactile stimuli
| 12-24 months: visual and social stimuli
106
Secondary Emotions
Embarrassment, jealousy, guilt, shame, pride, empathy
107
Guilt vs shame
Guilt- other focused
| Shame- self focused
108
Age of recognizing emotions in others
- 3-6 months: recognize positive emotions
| - 3-4 years: recognize happiness, sadness, anger, fear
109
Emotional scripts
Enables children to identity others' likely emotional reactions to events (pre-expectation for predicting others' emotions)
110
Emotional display
Culturally acceptable ("boys don't cry")
111
Emotion regulation
Involves monitoring and modifying emotional displays
112
Infants' and toddlers' tactics for emotion regulation
Turn away, rely on caregiver
113
Preschoolers' tactics for emotion regulation
Distraction, attention shift, approach/retreat, using emotional display rules, Cookie Monster video
114
Older childrens' tactics for emotion regulation
Mask emotions, ex: disappointing gift
115
Denham: 3 ways to teach emotional skills
1. Modeling
2. Reactions
3. Coaching
116
Gottman: steps to emotion coaching
1. Be aware of the child’s emotions
2. Recognize emotional expression as
an opportunity for intimacy and
teaching
3. Listen empathetically and validate
the child’s feelings
4. Label emotions in words that
children can understand
5. Help children come up with an
appropriate way to solve a problem
or deal with an upsetting situation
