Exam 1 Flashcards
(127 cards)
1
Q
Plato
A
What is x ?
Always starts out with this question
2
Q
Socrates
A
Accused of corruptions and worship the wrong gods
3
Q
Euthyphro
A
Priest
Self proclaimed
4
Q
Aporia
A
Question is asked with no answer
5
Q
A def
A
In terms of nec and suf conditions
6
Q
What is philosophy ?
A
Love of wisdom
7
Q
What is the theory of knowledge ?
A
Epistemology
8
Q
Knowledge
A
That
How
9
Q
That
A
Theoretical
âEpistemeâ
10
Q
How
A
Practical
âPhronesisâ
11
Q
Theory of Knowledge model
A
Scope
Sources
Nature (âdefâ)
12
Q
Sources
A
Experiences
Reasoning
13
Q
Experiences/Observation
A
Outer
Inner
14
Q
Outer
A
S.E
15
Q
Inner
A
Introspection
16
Q
Nature (âdefâ)
A
What is it to say that s knows that p2
In terms of nec and suf conditions
17
Q
Conditional
A
Contains a if claim
S -> T
18
Q
S
A
Antecedent
19
Q
Antecedent
A
Expr
Suf conditions
20
Q
T
A
Consequent
21
Q
Consequent
A
Expr
Nec condition
22
Q
Epistemology
A
S believes that p
S takes it true that P
That p is the true-for-s taking (to be) true
23
Q
Metaphysics model
A
It is true that p
That p is true being true
24
Q
Relativism
A
Truth
Moral
25
Truth
Knowledge
26
Moral
"Good"
27
Objections
The learning/disagreement becomes unexplained
| "There is only truth-for-s is, then, also only true-for-s"
28
Metaphysics
Theory of ultimate reality
General
Special
29
General
"Ontology"
30
Special
God(s)- philosophy of religion
World- cosmology
Soul (mind)- philosophy
31
Explanandum
Needs the explanation
32
Explanans
Provides the explanation
33
Conclusion
Answer the question
34
To look for the conclusion then look for
Conclusion indicators
35
What is the most famous premise ?
I think
| Therefore, I am
36
Sets of truth-apt sentences
Arguments
C-E explanation
Neither
37
Arguments
```
Deductive or (deductively) valid
(Deductively) invalid
```
38
Deductive or (deductively) valid
```
Prove C (sound or non-circular)
Fail to support C (unsound and fallacious)
```
39
(Deductively) invalid
Support C with a degree of probability
| Fail to support C (fallacious)
40
Support C with a degree of probability
Inductive (strong .. weak) (cogent)
| Adductive - IBE (strong ... weak) ['reason']
41
Fail to support C (fallacious)
Informal
Formal
Relevance
Induction
42
Studies the question of whether an argument is deductively valid, i.e. truth-preserving,or not.In a slogan: ____ studies the validity of arguments.
Logic
43
An _____ shows that something is the case.1It is designed to answer a question or to settle an issue. It consists of one conclusion and one or more premises
Argument
44
The ______ of an argument state the reasons to accept the conclusion. They are intended to provide either (1) proof, i.e.conclusive support or (2) gradual support of the conclusion
Premises
45
The ______ of an argument is what the premises are intended to prove or support. It answers the question of whether something is the case
Conclusion
46
âwhetherâTo determine the primary issue discussed in a text passage, one needs to identify the conclusion of the argument contained in it.
Issue-indicator
47
âIFâ (and every word with the same logical force, e.g.:)since, because4, given (that), for (the reason that), (insofar) as, in view of, due to the fact that, in that, this is shown by, this is suggested by, this is implied by, this is entailed by, this is proved by, this is demonstrated by, this is established by, this is supported by the view that, it may be concluded from
Premise-indicator
48
âTHENâ (and every word with the same logical force, e.g.:)therefore, ergo, so, thus, hence, consequently, accordingly, it follows that, this shows that, this suggests that, this implies that, this entails that, this proves that, this demonstrates that, this establishes that, this supports the view that, it may be concluded that, in conclusion
Conclusion-indicator
49
An argument is either
Deductively valid or deductively invalid
50
An argument is (deductively) valid (or deductive) iff
it is impossible for its conclusion to be false if all its premises are assumed as true. All its premises, if assumed as true, guarantee the truth of its conclusion
51
Sometimes an individual proposing an argument may believe (rightly or wrongly) that if the premises of the argument are all accepted as true, the conclusion also must be accepted as true. In effect, the proponent of the argument then believes (and intends the audience to believe) that the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion. In this case, we say that the argument is being put forth as a deductively valid argument.
Proposing a deductively valid argument
52
An argument is (deductively) invalid iff
it is possible for its conclusion to be false i fall its premises are assumed as true. All its premises, if assumed as true, fail to guarantee the truth of its conclusion
53
Methods informal logic(systems) to determine the deductive validity of arguments
Venn-diagrams, truth tables, construction of interpretations, proof systems
54
It is deductively valid, and all its premises are,actually, true.7(It follows that the conclusion of a sound argument is true.
An argument is sound iff
55
it is deductively valid, and some of its premises are, actually, false
An argument is unsound iff
56
A sound argument _____ its conclusion
Proves
57
Unsound arguments and deductively invalid arguments _______ their conclusions
Fail to prove
58
A deductively invalid argument either
gradually supports or fails to support its conclusion
59
Either it is unsound, or it is deductively invalid, and it fails to support its conclusion
An argument is fallacious (a fallacy) iff
60
A deductively invalid argument that gradually supports its conclusion is either
inductive or abductive
61
An ________ involves an inference from a sample to a target. It projects an observed property of objects of a kind(belonging to the sample)to some or even all objects of that kind outside the sample(belonging to the target). Its premises describe the observations made about the sample population; its conclusion states the hypothesis that the property in question is likely (to some degree)also instantiated by the members of the target.The strength of an inductive argument is mainly determined by two factors: (1) the sample size and (2) its representativeness.
Inductive argument
62
It is inductive, strong, and all its premises are, actually, true
An argument is cogent iff
63
(IBE âinference to the best explanation) is an inference from observedâcluesâto a hypothesis that best explains the sometimes-surprising observations made; it thus involves the forming or justification of an explanatory hypothesis. The argumentâs premises describe some observed effects; its conclusion states the best(most likely adequate) explanation for what causes these effects
Abductive argument
64
At times, the individual proposing such an argument may believe (rightly or wrongly) that if the premises of the argument are all accepted as true, it should also be accepted that the conclusion is very probably true, though not certainly so. In effect, the proponent of the argument then believes (and intends the audience to believe) that the truth of the premises makes the truth of the conclusion of the argument very likely, but not certain. In this case, we say that the argument is being put forth as an inductively or abductively strong argument
Proposing an inductively or abductively strong argument
65
Subjective judgement
True if you think it is true
66
Objective judgment
It's truth independent of what you think
67
The view that if your culture and some other culture have different standards of truth or evidence, there is no independent way by which are cultures standards can be seen to be more correct than the others
Relativistic
68
Relativistic arg from cultural/situational diff
It's not universally accepted that p (for any p)
| It's not (objectively) true/false that p
69
Axiology
Theory of values
70
Axiology model
```
Moral (ethics)
Religious
Legal
Political
Artistic
Etc.
```
71
Cognitivism
| "objectivism"
Some moral value judgement are truth-apt
72
Non-cognitivism
| "subjectivism"
No moral value judgement is truth-apt
73
Absolutism
Always without exception
74
IBE
An argument whose conclusion explains the cause of something
75
Psychology/Rhetoric
Persuasion
| Art of persuasion
76
Logic/Argumentation
Truth
77
Vague
Has no clear meanings
78
Ambiguous
Are multiple meanings
79
Ambiguous model
Semantic (lexical)
Syntatic (grammetical)
Grouping
80
Semantic
When a statement contains an expression that ha more than one meaning
Eqvivocrtion
81
Syntax
Grammer sentence structure
| Ampiboly
82
Grouping
It is unclear if you are referring to a group or individual
| Division/grouping
83
Two kinds of argument
Those trying to prove or demonstrate the conclusion
| Those trying to support the conclusion
84
Arguments that try and demonstrate the conclusion include schemes like these
All As are Bs, No Bs are Cs, No As are Cs
| If p than Q, not Q, not P
85
Arguments that support a conclusion include
Generalizing
Reasoning by analogy
Reasoning about cause and effect
86
Real-life reasoning usually involves what ?
One or the other or both of these two basic form of arguments
87
Rhetoric uses what ?
Psychological (rhetorical) force of expressions to influence our attitudes
88
Make it sound better
Euphemism
89
Make it sound worse
Dysphemism
90
To insinuate something derogatory
Innuendo
91
Rests on an assumption that should have been established but wasnât
Loaded question
92
A cultural belief or idea about a some group's attributes, usually simplified or exaggerated
Stereotype
93
Exaggeration
Hyperbole
94
Make fun of
Ridicule/Sarcasm
95
Wording used to protect a claim from criticism by weakening or qualifying it
Weaseler
96
Used to play down or diminish importance
Down player
97
Suggesting there is a reason to believe something without giving that reason
Proof surrogate
98
Metorical device
Repetition
99
An argument that doesn't really support or prove what it is supposed to support or prove
Fallacy
100
A âred herring,â a distraction
| An argument that is not really relevant to its conclusion
Relevance fallacy
101
If a speaker or writer attempts to dismiss someoneâs position by discussing the person rather than attacking his or her position, a fallacy is committed
Argumentum ad hominem
102
Argumentum ad hominem is what ?
The most common fallacy on earth
103
What are the argumentum ad hominem ?
```
Abusive
Circumstantial
Inconsistency
Poisoning the well
Guilt by association
Genetic fallacy
```
104
Trying to dismiss what someone is going to say, by talking about his/her character or circumstances or consistency
Poisoning the well
105
A fallacy that occurs when someone argues that the origin of a contention in and of itself automatically renders it false
Genetic fallacy
106
When a speaker or writer attempts to dismiss a contention by distorting or misrepresenting it
Straw man
107
When someone tries to establish a conclusion by offering it as the only alternative to something we will find unacceptable, unattainable, or implausible
False dilemma
108
When an attempt is made to support or prove a point by trying to make us disprove it
Misplacing the burden of proof
109
When it is argued that we should believe a claim because nobody has proved it false
Appeal to ignorance
110
When a speaker or writer tries to âsupportâ or âdemonstrateâ a contention by offering as âevidenceâ or âproofâ what amounts to a repackaging of the very contention in question
Begging the question
111
What do all these fallacies have in common ?
They donât demonstrate their conclusion
| They donât support their conclusion (they donât make their conclusion more likely)
112
```
Argument from Outrage
Scare Tactics
Peer Pressure Fallacy
Appeal to Pity
Other Appeals to Emotion
Apple Polishing
Guilt Tripping
Appeal to Envy
Appeal to Jealousy
```
Appeal to emotion
113
This appeal-to-emotion fallacy occurs when a speaker or writer âsupportsâ a contention by trying to make us angry rather than by producing a real argument
Argument of outrage
114
This occurs when a speaker or writer tries to scare us into accepting an irrelevant conclusion. This includes direct threats (sometimes called âarguments from forceâ)
Scare tactics
115
Sometimes the Scare Tactic takes the form of a what ?
Threat
116
Trying to persuade us to do or believe something by playing on our fear of being excluded from the group
Peer pressure
117
An appeal-to-emotion fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer âsupportsâ a contention by playing on our sympathy rather than by producing a real argument
Appeal to pity
118
This appeal-to-emotion fallacy occurs when a speaker or writer âsupportsâ a contention by trying to flatter us rather than by producing a real argument
Apple polishing
119
âSupportingâ a contention by trying to make us feel guilty rather than by producing a real argument
Guilt tripping
120
An appeal-to-emotion fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer âsupportsâ a contention by trying to make us envious rather than by producing a real argument
Appeal to envy
121
An appeal-to-emotion fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer âsupportsâ a contention by trying to make us jealous rather than by producing a real argument
Appeal to jealousy
122
Two Wrongs make a Right
Wishful Thinking
Denial
Ducking with Irrelevancies
Irrelevent conclusion
123
A fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer thinks that the wrongfulness of a deed is erased by its being a response to another wrongful deed
Two wrongs make a right
124
A fallacy that occurs when we forget that wanting something to be true is irrelevant to whether it is true
Wishful thinking
125
What is a common form of thinking ?
Denial
126
Sometimes irrelevancies are introduced into a discussion when someone attacks a counterargument to his or her position rather than offering an argument for that position
Ducking with irrelevance
127
What do all appeals to emotion have in common ?
They are attempts at persuasion masquerading as arguments
