Exam 2 Flashcards

Question

FALSE DILEMMA

Answer 1

The False Dilemma fallacy happens when someone tries to establish a conclusion by offering it as the only alternative to something we will find unacceptable, unattainable, or implausible. “Either we allow the oil companies to drill for oil in the Gulf or we will be at the mercy of OPEC. Therefore we shouldn’t prevent the oil companies from drilling for oil in the Gulf.” “Either we increase the number of troops in Iraq or the terrorists will be attacking U.S. cities. Seems like a simple choice to me.”

Answer 2

“It’s impossible to eliminate terrorism entirely. We should stop wasting money on it.”

Answer 3

“ There shouldn’t be restrictions on violence in the movies. After all, when is a movie ‘too violent’? You can’t draw a line.”

Answer 4

This fallacy occurs when an attempt is made to support or prove a point by trying to make us disprove it. “Obviously, the president’s birth certificate is a forgery. Can you prove it isn’t?” “Can I prove the Biblical flood really happened? Hey, can you prove it didn’t???”

Answer 5

This is a variation of the fallacy of Misplacing the Burden of Proof. It occurs when it is argued that we should believe a claim because nobody has proved it false

Answer 6

This fallacy occurs when a speaker or writer tries to “support” or “demonstrate” a contention by offering as “evidence” or “proof” what amounts to a repackaging of the very contention in question. “Obviously the president told the truth about Benghazi. He wouldn’t lie to us about it.” “Can I prove the Biblical flood really happened? Of course it happened! Why else would Noah build an ark???”

Answer 7

This appeal-to-emotion fallacy occurs when a speaker or writer “supports” a contention by trying to make us angry rather than by producing a real argument. “Do you think Apple doesn’t know it hires 12 year-old children to make its electronics? You think it isn’t aware it pays them slave wages and has them work in buildings without heat or air conditioning? It knows. Apple products can’t be any good."

Answer 8

This occurs when a speaker or writer tries to scare us into accepting an irrelevant conclusion. This includes direct threats (sometimes called “arguments from force”). Example:“Buy Michelin tires. Don’t risk your children’s safety by buying inferior brands.”

Answer 9

Sometimes the Scare Tactic takes the form of a threat. | Example:“Buy Michelin tires, or I will see to it you lose your job.”

Answer 10

Trying to persuade us to do or believe something by playing on our fear of being excluded from the group. Example:“Of course we are winning the war! If you don’t like it here, move to Baghdad, you weirdo!”

Answer 11

An appeal-to-emotion fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer “supports” a contention by playing on our sympathy rather than by producing a real argument. Example:“Jane is the best qualified candidate because she is out of work and desperately needs a job.”

Answer 12

This appeal-to-emotion fallacy occurs when a speaker or writer “supports” a contention by trying to flatter us rather than by producing a real argument. Example:"Surely someone as intelligent as you can see that the market system is always better than government regulation."

Answer 13

Guilt Tripping is “supporting” a contention by trying to make us feel guilty rather than by producing a real argument. Example:“How could you not invite Jennifer to your wedding? You really must!”

Answer 14

An appeal-to-emotion fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer “supports” a contention by trying to make us envious rather than by producing a real argument. Example: “Colin has had every advantage: He was born into a wealthy family, he's very good-looking, and he has always been at the top of his class. In short, he has everything you don't have. If I were you I'd take him off the short list for the job.”

Answer 15

An appeal-to-emotion fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer “supports” a contention by trying to make us jealous rather than by producing a real argument. Example: “Listen, I know how much you're in love with Sarah. That's why I'm telling you that Jack has been hitting on her lately. You ought to know that when you're deciding who should be selected for the internship Jack applied for.”

Answer 16

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer thinks that the wrongfulness of a deed is erased by its being a response to another wrongful deed. “Why should I tell them they undercharged me? You think they would say something if they overcharged me?”

Answer 17

A fallacy that occurs when we forget that wanting something to be true is irrelevant to whether it is true. “I really really hope I will be the next American Idol. Therefore I’m sure I will be.” Thinking X is true for no better reason than you want it to be true. Denial is a common form. “Teach, I didn’t miss THAT many classes!”

Answer 18

Sometimes irrelevancies are introduced into a discussion when someone attacks a counterargument to his or her position rather than offering an argument for that position. “People don’t like the president. Granted, polls suggest he is popular, but people are lying because they don’t want anyone to think they are racist.”

Answer 19

These arguments are supposed to raise the probability of their conclusion but fail almost entirely.

Answer 20

Often called Hasty Generalization Example:“The food in this town is lousy, judging from this meal.” “Like, EVERYONE in New York is friendly! Everybody I met was as nice as can be!” “Man! Old folks around here are terrible drivers! Did you see that old coot passing me on the right??!!”

Answer 21

``` An anecdote is a story... “One time I saw this airplane parked right in the middle of the tarmac in everyone’s way. I asked who it belonged to. Someone told me it was John Travolta’s. Folks, that’s the trouble with these Hollywood liberals. They only care about themselves.” “The IRS isn’t interested in the big corporations, just middle-class taxpayers like you and me. I was audited last year—you ever hear of Exxon-Mobile getting nailed?” “This global warming stuff...what a crock. We had the coldest January on record right here in Columbus last year.” “ARGUING FROM ANECDOTE” is nothing more than generalizing from a single case or two ```

Answer 22

Provide weak argument “This Chihuahua bites. Therefore, all Chihuahuas bite.” When a sample is taken from a homogeneous population, a generalization can be made from the sample. “This sip of coffee is delicious, therefore all sips of coffee from this cup will be delicious.”

Answer 23

A fallacy occurs when a speaker or writer attempts to support a general statement by citing an atypical supporting case. Two varieties of generalizing from exceptional cases: Biased Sample Self-Selection Fallacy

Answer 24

Basing a generalization about a large heterogeneous population on an atypical or skewed sample. Example:“Judging from what car dealers say, most business people now think the economy is improving.” “George W. Bush was really popular in South America. Look at how many people came out to cheer when he went down there.” The sample (South Americans outside cheering) UNDER-REPRESENTS South Americans who don’t feel like going out. It is atypical.

Answer 25

Example:“Most Americans have a favorable view of the president as a person, judging from an online survey conducted by CNN.” A Self-Selection Fallacy occurs when generalizing from a sample whose members are in the sample by their own choice.

Answer 26

The Fallacy of Accident occurs when it is assumed that a general statement applies to a specific case even though that case may be an exception. Example:“Everyone should have access to a college education. Therefore, anyone who applies should be admitted to Cal Poly.” “This city has a very high crime rate; therefore it will be dangerous to shop in this neighborhood." Fallacy of Accident! To infer from the city’s overall high crime rate, considered in and of itself without regard to anything else, that a particular location in the city has a high crime rate is to commit this fallacy.

Answer 27

Arguments based on debatable or unimportant similarities between things. Example:“My mom is just like Adolf Hitler. I doubt she will let me go out with you guys.” “Hey, the ice caps on Mars are melting, and it isn’t due to fossil fuel emissions!! So melting ice caps here aren’t due to fossil fuel emissions either!” Earth and Mars are physically similar– a good reason to think ice caps COULD melt on Earth in the absence of fuel emissions. Not a good argument for thinking fuel emissions DIDN’T cause melting here.

Answer 28

Trying to support a contention by offering as evidence the opinion of a nonauthoritative source. Example:“My father thinks the president lied. Therefore the president lied.”

Answer 29

Treating an issue that cannot be settled by public opinion as if it can. Example:“Hondas get great gas mileage. Everyone knows that.”

Answer 30

Trying to justify a practice on the grounds that it is traditional or is commonly practiced. Example:“This is the right way. This is the way it has always been done.”

Answer 31

Doing X is a tradition. Therefore it should continue being a tradition. Example:“Traditionally marriage has been restricted to heterosexual couples. Therefore it’s right to restrict marriage to heterosexual couples.”

Answer 32

Similar to the fallacious appeal to popularity. “You shouldn’t eat at Applebee’s. No right thinking person does.” The Bandwagon Fallacy plays on our desire to be in step with popular opinion.

Answer 33

“After I took Zicam my cold went away fast. Therefore taking Zicam caused my cold to go away fast.”

Answer 34

Assuming that the fact that one event came after another establishes that it was caused by it. Example:“After I played poker my cold went away fast. Therefore playing poker caused my cold to go away fast.” “Every day the sun comes up right after the rooster crows; therefore the rooster causes the sun to come up.”

Answer 35

Assuming that the fact that one event happened around the same time as another establishes that it was caused by it. Example:“John had a heart attack while he was saying a prayer. Therefore the prayer caused the heart attack.”

Answer 36

After a terrible evening with mosquitoes, you wear a copper ‘Mosquito Be-gone’ bracelet. The mosquitoes didn’t seem so bad after that. You conclude that the bracelet works [If the average value of a variable is atypical on one measurement, it is likely to be less atypical on a subsequent measurement.]

Answer 37

“In our tests, we asked randomly selected men to drive a golf ball as far as they could. We then had them wear our magnetic bracelet and try again. On the second occasion the men hit the ball an average of ten feet further. Our bracelet can lengthen your drive as well.” [The average length of the drive will vary randomly from test to test.]

Answer 38

“People who walk long distances enjoy good health. Therefore walking long distances will make you healthy.” [Perhaps being healthy makes people more inclined to take long walks]

Answer 39

“After Susan threw out the chain letter, she was in an automobile accident. Therefore throwing out the chain letter caused her to get in an automobile accident.” “I got cancer when I lived under a high-voltage power line. Therefore, the high voltage power line caused my cancer.” “Chimney fires and long underwear purchases increase in frequency at the very same time. Therefore chimney fires cause people to buy long underwear.”

Answer 40

“I left the lights on when I went to bed. Next morning I woke up with a headache. Therefore sleeping with the lights on causes headaches.” [Perhaps being tired caused both headache and leaving the lights on]

Answer 41

It is a fallacy to try to support (or disprove) a cause-and-effect claim by telling a story. Example:I’ve heard doctors say eating red meat increases your risk of heart disease, but don’t believe it. My uncle lived to be a 100 and ate red meat 3 times a day. He didn’t die of a heart attack.

Answer 42

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker or writer rests a conclusion on an unsupported warning that is controversial and tendentious, to the effect that something will progress by degrees to an undesirable outcome. Example:“If we legalize pot, the next thing ya know we will be making meth legal, then heroin—it will never end.” “Twenty percent? You want to tip her 20%? Hey, next thing you’ll want to tip 25%! And then 30%! It will never end.”

Answer 43

Some explanations are vague or circular or not testable even in principle. Such explanations are said to commit the fallacy of Untestable Explanation. Example:“He has heart issues because of sins done in a previous life.” “The attack on the Twin Towers was God’s way of telling us we are sinners.” “What brought Todd and Brenda together? Fate.” “Men are biologically weaker than women and that’s why they don’t live as long.”

Answer 44

If s, then t, t. Therefore, s. It is an invalid argument form. If Bill Gates owns Fort Knox, then he is rich.Bill Gates is rich.Therefore, he owns Fort Knox.

Answer 45

Whenever an argument is in this form: If s, then t, Not s. Therefore, not t. It is an invalid argument form. If Bill Gates is Chinese, then he is a human being.Bill Gates is not Chinese.Therefore, he is not a human being.

Answer 46

When someone assumes that two things related to a third thing are related to each other, as in:\ All cats are mammals. All dogs are mammals. Therefore, all cats are dogs. If Bill wins the lottery, then he’ll be happy. If Bill buys a new car, then he’ll be happy. Therefore, if Bill wins the lottery, then he’ll buy a new car.

Answer 47

Claims that cannot have the same truth value

Answer 48

Claims that cannot both be true but can both be false

Answer 49

Equivocation occurs in this argument because the word ‘bank’ is ambiguous and used in two different senses: All banks are alongside rivers, and the place where I keep my money is a bank. Therefore the place where I keep my money is alongside a river.

Answer 50

This occurs when the structure of a sentence makes the sentence ambiguous. If you want to take the motor out of the car, I’ll sell it to you cheap. The pronoun ‘it’ may refer to the car or to the motor. It isn’t clear which. It would be a fallacy to conclude one way or the other, without more information.

Answer 51

A fallacy that happens when a speaker or writer assumes that what is true of a group of things taken individually must also be true of those same things taken collectively; or assumes that what is true of the parts must be true of the whole. “This building is made from rectangular bricks; therefore, it must be rectangular.”

Answer 52

A fallacy that happens when a speaker or writer assumes that what is true of a group of things taken collectively must also be true of its individual members; or assumes that what is true of the whole must be true of its parts “This building is circular; therefore, it must be made from circular bricks.”

Exam 2 Flashcards

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