Exam #1 Chapters 1, 3, and 4 Flashcards by Keana Huggins

The erect position of the body with the face forward, arms at the side, palms facing forward, used in reference in describing the relationship of body parts

anatomical position

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Two branches of science that provide the foundation for understanding the bodys parts and functions

anatomy and physiology

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The science of body structures and the relationships among them

anatomy

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The science of body functions, how body parts work

physiology

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6 levels of structural organization are:

chemical
cellular
tissue
organ
systems
organismal

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Basic level that can be composed of atoms and molecules

chemical level

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Smallest unit of matter that participate in chemical reactions

atom

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Two or more atoms joined together

molecules

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Molecules combine together to form ______, the basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed of chemicals

cells, cellular level

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Groups of cells and materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular functions
four types are :
epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous

tissues, tissue level

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Tissues that covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities and forms glands

epithelial

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Tissues that connects, supports , and protects body organs while distributing blood levels to other tissues

connective

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Tissues that contracts to make body parts move and generate heat

muscular

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Tissues that carry information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses

nervous

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The level were different types of tissues join together

organ level

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Structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues, they have specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes
Ex: heart, liver, brain, lungs, stomach

organs

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Level that consists of related organs with a common function

Ex: digestive

system level

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Head

cephalic

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Skull

cranial

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Face

facial

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Neck

cervical

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Armpit

axillary

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Arm

brachial

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Front of elbow

antecubital

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Forearm

antebrachial

Wrist

carpal

Palm

palmer or volar

Fingers

digital or phalangeal

Thigh

femoral

Anterior surface of the knee

patellar

Leg

crural

Foot

pedal

Ankle

tarsal

Toes

digital or phalangeal

Forehead

frontal

Temple

temporal

Eye

orbital or ocular

Ear

otic

Cheek

buccal

Nose

nasal

Mouth

oral

Chin

mental

Breastbone

sternal

Chest

thoracic

Breast

mammary

Abdomen

abdominal

Navel

umbilical

Hip

coxal

Groin

inguinal

Pelvic

pelvis

Thumb

pollex

Hand

manual

Pubis

pubic

Top of foot

dorsum

Great toe

hallux

Base of skull

occipital

Shoulder blade

scapular

Spinal column

vertebral

Back

dorsal

Back of elbow

olecranal or cubital

Between hips

sacral

Buttock

gluteal

Region of the anus and external genitals

perineal

Hollow behind knee

popliteal

Calf

sural

Sole

plantar

Loin

lumbar

Back of hand

dorsum

Heel

calcaneal

Words that describe the position of one body part relative to another

directional terms

Towrards the head, or upper part

superior

Away from the head, or the lower part

inferior

Nearer to or at the front

Nearer to or the back

posterior

Nearer to the midline, an imaginary vertical line that divides the body into equal right and left halves

medial

Farther from the midline

lateral

Between to structures

intermediate

On the same side of the body as another structure

ipsilateral

On the opposite side of the body from another structure

contralateral

Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk, nearer to the origination of a structure

proximal

Farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk, farther from the origination of a structure

distal

Toward or on the surface of the body

superficial

Away from the surface of the body

deep

Imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts

planes

A vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides

sagittal plane

When a plane passes through the midline of the body or an organ and divides it into equal right an left sides

parasagittal plane

Divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior portions

frontal or coronal plane

Divides the body or an organ into superior and inferior portions

transverse portions or cross-sectional, or horizontal plane

By contrast, passes through the body or an organ at a oblique angle other than 90 degree

oblique plane

A cut of the body or one of its organs made along one of the planes

section

11 principle body systems:

``` integumentary skeletal muscular nervous endocrine cardiovascular lymphatic respitory digestive urinary reproductive ```

Skin and associated structures such as hair, fingernails, and tonsils, sweat glands, and oil glands

integumentary system

Functions: protects the body, helps regulate body temperature, eliminates some waste, helps make Vitamin D, detects sensations such as touch, pain, warmth, and cold, stores fat and provides insulation

integumentary system

Bones and joints of the body and their associated cartilages

skeletal system

Functions: supports and protects body, provides surface for muscle attachments, aids body movements, houses cells that produce blood cells, stores minerals and lipids

skeletal system

Specifically skeletal muscle tissue, muscle usually attached to bone (smooth, cardiac tissue)

muscular system

Functions: participates in body movements, such as walking, maintains posture, produces heat

muscular system

Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sense organs, such as eyes and ears

nervous system

Functions: generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities, detects changes in body's internal and external environments, interprets changes, and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions

nervous system

Hormone producing glands, pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries, and testes

endocrine system

Functions: regulates body activities by releasing hormones, chemical messengers transported in blood from endocrine glands or tissue to target organ

endocrine system

Blood, heart, and blood vessels

cardiovascular system

Functions: heart pumps blood through blood vessels, blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and waste away from cells and helps regulate acid-base balance, temp, and water content of body fluids, blood components help defend against disease and repair damaged blood vessels

cardiovascular system

Lymphatic fluid and vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils, cells that carry out immune responses, B cells, T cells, and others

lymphatic system

Functions: returns proteins and fluid to body, carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood, contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells and T cells that protect against disease causing microbes

lymphatic system

Lungs and air passages such as the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes leading into and out of lungs

respiratory system

Function: transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air, helps regulate acid base balance of body fluids, air flowing out the lungs through vocal cords, produces sound

respiratory system

Organs of gastrointestinal tract, a long tube that includes the the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and anus, also includes accessory organs that assist in digestive process, such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

digestive system

Functions: achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food, adsorbs nutrients, eliminates solid wastes

digestive system

Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra

urinary system

Functions: produces, stores, and eliminates urine, eliminates waste and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood, helps maintain the acid base balance of body fluids, maintains bodys mineral balance, helps regulate production of red blood cells

urinary system

Gonads, testes in males, ovaries in females, and associated organs, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands in females, epididymis, ductus or deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate and penis in males

reproductive system

Functions: gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism, gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes, associated organs transport and store gametes, mammary glands produce milk

reproductive system

Six most important life processes the occur in the body:

``` metabolism responsiveness movement growth differentiation reproduction ```

The sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body

metabolism

One phase of metabolism is ______, the breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components

catabolism

A phase of metabolism, the building up of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components

anabolism

The body's ability to detect and respond to changes | Ex: fever

responsiveness

Includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells

movement

An increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells or both

growth

The development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state, such stem cells

differentiation

Cells which can divide and give rise to cells that undergo differentiation

stem cells

Formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual

reproduction

Also known as necropsy, is a post-mortem examination of the body and dissection of its internal organs to confirm or determine the cause of death

autopsy

The maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the body's internal environment, it occurs because of the ceaseless inter-play of the body's many regulatory systems

homeostasis

An important aspect of ________ is maintaining the volume and composition of ____, dilute watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals that are found inside cells as well as surrounding them

homeostasis, body fluids

The fluid within cells

intracellular fluid

The fluid outside body cells

extracellular fluid (EFC)

The EFC that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues

interstitial fluid

EFC within blood vessels

blood plasma

EFC within lymphatic vessels

lymph

EFC in and around the brain and spinal cord

cerebrospinal fluid

EFC in joints

synovial fluid

EFC of the eyes

aqueous humor and vitreous body

Because EFC surrounds the cells of the body, it serves as the body's ___

internal environment

The space that surrounds the entire body

external environment

The linings of the respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems are continuous with the ____

external environment

From the ___, oxygen enters plasma through the respiratory system and nutrients enter plasma through the digestive system, after entering plasma, these substances are transported throughout the body by the cardiovascular system. Oxygen and nutrients eventually leave plasma and enter interstitial fluid by crossing the walls of blood capillaries, the smallest vessels of the body.

external environment

Are specialized to allow the transfer of material between plasma and interstitial fluid

capillaries

From ____, oxygen and nutrients are taken up by cells and metabolized for energy, the cells produce waste products that enter interstitial fluid and then move across blood capillary walls into plasma. The cardiovascular system transports these wastes to organs for elimination into the external environment, CO2 is removed by respiratory system and nitrogen such as urea and ammonia by urinary system

interstitial fluid internal environment

The ___ regulates homeostasis by sending electrical signals called ___ to organs that can counteract changes from the balanced state

nervous system , nerve impulses

The ___ includes many glands that secrete messenger molecules called ___ into the blood

endocrine system, hormones

A cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, or reevaluated

feedback system or feedback loop

Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure, or glucose level is termed ____

controlled condition

Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a ___

stimulus

3 basic components off the feedback system:

receptor control center effector

A body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control center, is a ___ This pathway is called ___, since the information flows toward the control center

receptor | afferent pathway

A ___ in the body for example the brain, sets the narrow range or set point within which a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates output commands when needed. Output typically occurs as nerve impulses or hormones or other chemical signals. This pathway is called an ___, since the information flows away from the control center

control center

An ___ is a body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a ____ or effect that changes the controlled condition

effector, response

Nearly every ___ or ___ can behave as an effector

organ or tissue

A ___ reverses a change in a controlled condition such as blood pressure being decreased because it was increased by something Slows and then stops as the controlled condition returns to its normal state

negative feedback

If the response reverses the stimulus, a system is operating by ___

negative feedback

A ___ tends to strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body's controlled conditions. The control center still provides commands to an effector, but this time the effector produces physiological response that adds to or reinforce the initial change in the controlled condition, this continues until interrupted by some mechanism Ex: normal childbirth, severe blood loss

positive feedback

The environment and you own behavior Your genetic makeup The air you breath, food, and even your thoughts Are factors in ___

health balance

If the ___ is moderate, a disorder or disease may occur, if severe then death may occur

homeostatic imbalance

Any abnormality of structure or function

disorder

An illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms

disease

Affects one part or a limited region of the body | Ex: sinus infection

local disease

Affects either the entire body or several parts of it | Ex: flu

systemic disease

Subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer Ex: headache, nausea, anxiety

symptoms

Objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure | Ex: swelling, rash, fever. high blood pressure

signs

The science that deals with why, when, and where diseases occur and how they are transmitted among individuals in a community

epidemiology

The science that deals with the effects and uses of drugs in treatment of disease

pharmacology

The science and skill of distinguishing one disorder from another

diagnosis

The body laying facedown

prone

The body laying faceup

supine

Words that describe the position of one body part relative to another

directional terms

5 body cavities are:

``` cranial vertebral thoracic abdominalpelvic pelvic ```

Spaces that enclose internal organs

body cavities

The cranial bones form a hollow space of the head called the ___

cranial cavity

The bones of the vertebral column form the ___ which contains the spinal cord

vertebral canal

The ___ cavity and ____ are continuous with one another

cranial cavity and vertebral canal

Three layers of protective tissue, the ___ and a shock-absorbing fluid surround the brain and spinal cord

meninges

Cavity formed by the ribs, the muscles of the chest, the sternum (breastbone), and the thoracic portion of the vertebral column

thoracic cavity

The pleural cavity, pericardial cavity, and mediastinum are part of the ___

thoracic cavity

A fluid filled space that surrounds the heart

pericardial cavity

Two fluid filled spaces around each lung

pleural cavity

The central portion of the thoracic cavity is an anatomical region called the ___, it is between the lungs, extended from the sternum to the vertebral column and from the first rib to the diaphragm. Contains all the thoracic organs such as the heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, and several large blood vessels, except the lungs.

mediastinum

Dome shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominalpelvic cavity

diaphragm

Extends from the diaphragm to the groin and its encircled by the abdominal muscular wall and the bones and muscles of the pelvis, its divided into two portions, abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity

abdominopelvic cavity

Superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity, contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine

abdominal cavity

The inferior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity, contains the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system

pelvic cavity

Organs inside the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are called ___

viscera

A thin, pliable tissue that covers, lines, partitions, or connects structures

membrane

A slippery double layered membrane associated with body cavities that does not open directly to the exterior, covers viscera and also lines the walls of the thorax and abdomen

serous membrane

Thin epithelium that lines the walls of the cavities, part of the serous membrane

parietal layer

Thin epithelium that covers and adheres to the viscera within cavities

visceral layer

The serous membrane of the pleural cavities is called the ___, The ___ clings to the surface of the lungs and the ___ lines the chest wall, covering the superior surface of the diaphragm between is the pleural cavity with a small amount of lubricating serous fluid

pleura, visceral pleura, parietal pleura

The serous membrane of the pericardial cavity is the ___, the ___ covers the surface of the heart, the ___ lines the chest wall. Between them is the ___, fluid with a small amount of lubricating serous fluid

pericardium, visceral pericardium, parietal pericardium, pericardial cavity

The ___ is the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity

peritoneum

The ___ covers the abdominal viscera, and the ___ lines the abdominal wall covering the inferior surface of the diaphragm. Between them is the ___ which contains a small of lubricating serous fluid

visceral peritoneum, parietal peritoneum, peritoneal cavity

Abdominal organs that are not surrounded by peritoneum, instead they are posterior to it Ex: kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, duodenum, ascending and descending colon, portions of the abdominal aorta and inferior vena cave

retroperitoneal

Two horizontal and two vertical lines, aligned like a tic tac toe grid, divide the cavity into nine ___

abdominopelvic regions

The superior horizontal line, the ___ passes across the lowest level of the 10th costal cartilages

subcostal line

The inferior horizontal line, the ___ , passes across the superior margins of the iliac crests of the right and left hip bone

transtubercular line

Two vertical lines left and right ___, are drawn through the midpoints of the clavicle , just medial of the nipples

midclavicular lines

The nine abdominopelvic regions are:

``` right hypochondriac epigastric left hypochondriac right lumbar umbilical left lumbar right inguinal hypogastric left inquinal ```

Divides the cavity into ___, a midsagital line (median line) and a transverse line (transumbilical line) are passed through the umbilicus (belly button) RUQ, RLQ, LUQ, LLQ

quadrants

The ___are used for anatomical studies, and the ___ are used to locate the site of pain, tumors, or some other abnormality

nine regions, quadrants

The descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anus, left ovary and fallopian tube, and left ureter are in the ___ quadrant

LLQ

The stomach, spleen, left lobe of liver, body of pancreas, left kidney and adrenal gland, splenic flexure of colon, and parts of the transverse and descending colon are in the ___ quadrant

LUQ

The liver, gallbladder with biliary tree, duodenum, head of pancreas, right kidney and adrenal gland, and hepatic flexure of colon are in the ___ quadrant

RUQ

The cecum and appendix are in the ___ quadrant

RLQ

The abdominopelvic cavity extends from the ___ to the ___

diaphragm, groin

The normal process characterized by a progressive decline in the body's ability to restore homeostasis Ex: wrinkles, gray hair, hair loss, loss of bone mass, menopause, decreased lung capacity

aging

Consists of the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus, and has two components the cytosol and organelles

cytoplasm

- Also known as intracellular fluid - Site of all intracellular activities except for in the in the nuclues - 75-90% warter and dissolved substances - Has cytockeleton

cytoplasm

- provides structure | - a network of 3 types of protein filaments, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubles

cytoskeleton

- thinner elements of cytoskeleton - composed of myosin and actin, at edge of cell - generates movement and support

microfilaments

-Stabilizes organelles and attach cells to one another

intermediate filaments

- largest of cytoskeletal components - tubulin in shape - determine cell shape and helps to move organelles

microtubules

- located near the nucleus | - consists of a pair of centrioles and the pericentriolar matrix

centrosomes

- specialized structures within the cell that have characteristic shapes - perform specific functions in cellular growth, maintenance, and reproduction

organelles

- microtuble HQ - builds mt's in non-dividing cells - forms mitotic spindle during cell division

centrosomes

- both composed of microtubles - ____ small ,hairlike, lining cell surface. move fluid along the cell's curface - ____ much larger, capable of moving the entire cell ex: sperm cells tail

cilia, flagella

- synthesizes proteins - attached to rough ER - free ___, make proteins in the cytosol - bound ___, on rough ER, make membrane protein - can make any kind of membrane protein (cell, organelle, vesicles

ribosomes

- network of flattened membraneous sacs or tube like structures (cisternae) - has smooth and rough

endoplasmic reticulum

- manufactures fatty acids and steroids | - initiates detox (alcohol), liver

smooth ER

-associated ribosomes, perform protein synthesis

rough ER

- transports proteins received from the rough ER - "domestic" membrane vesicles, will become part of cell mb - "international" secretory vesicles, contents will leave cell *exocytosis* - all proteins exported from the cell are processed here

golgi complex

-golgi doesn't simply repackage, ____ modify the contents of the vesicle protein + glucose + glycoprotein protein + lipid + lipoprotein lipid + glucose + lipoprotein lipid + glucose + glycolipid

enzymes

-dissolve + body -spherical vesicles filled with hydrolytic enzymes - mini stomachs, pH of 5 -digestion of everything from cellular waste material to molecules involved in signaling and energy metabolism -carries out autophagy -implements autolysis

lysosomes

- self + eater | - digesting worn-out organelles to recycle cytoplasmic contents, also cell defense

autophagy

- Self + dissolve - destruction of the entire cell - most intra -, some extracellular

autolysis

- peroxide + body - microbodies contain oxidases - oxidize amino acids and fatty acids, normal metabolism - oxidize toxins . like alcohol

peroxisomes

-removing a Hydrogen atom is called _____

oxidization

- protein + body - degrade proteins in the cytosol - breaks them down into amino acids - participate in negative feedback loops by breaking the cycle once the set point achieved

proteasomes

- the power house of the cell - site of aerobic respiration: generate ATP in the presence of Oxygen - has its own genome, mDNA and can transcribe its own proteins (hence ribosomes) - also: signaling, cell cycle, growth, death - mother gives all these too baby

mitochondrion

- contains most of the cell's genes, located on chromosomes - controls cellular structure - directs cellular activities - produces ribosomes in nucleoli

nucleus

-double membrane to separate it from the cytoplasm, dissolve before mitosis

nuclear

-analogous to the integral membrane proteins, control movement of substances into and out of nucleus

nuclear pores

-cluster of proteins, DNA, RNA-making ribosomes

nucleolus (nucleoli)

Chromosomes | -just before division, DNA replicates and condenses into ____, joined by a ____

chromatids, centromere

-highly coiled and folded DNA molecule that is combined with protein molecules

chromosome

-scientific study of cells is called ____

cell biology or cytology

3 main parts of a cell:

plasma membrane cytoplasm nucleus

- forms the cells flexible outer surface, separating the cells internal from its external environment - barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell

plasma membrane

-arrangement of lipids and proteins in the plasma membrane

fluid mosiac model

____ are fluid structures b/c the lipids and many of the proteins are free to rotate and move sideways in their own half of the bilayer

membranes

The basic structural framework of the plasma membrane is the ____ -two back to back layers made up of 3 lipid molecules: phospholipids 75%, cholesterol 20%, and glycolipids 5%

lipid bilayer

____ are amphipathic, which means they have polar and non-polar parts - hydro=water - philic=loving - phobic=fearing - charged (polar) head - fatty (nonpolar) tails

phospholipid molecules

-when exposed to water, the molecules will arrange themselves to hide the lipid chains

phospholipids

-something small that can tolerate the hydrophobic interior region passing through

semi-permeable

-passageways to allow regulated transport of other substances

integrated protein channels

- extend into or through the lipid bilayer and are firmly embedded in it - most are transmembrane proteins: they span the entire bilayer and produce cytosol and ECF

integral proteins

- are not as firmly embedded in membrane | - attach to the polar heads of membrane or to integral protein in or outside the membrane

peripheral proteins

- movement of ions or molecules in water in response to a concentration gradient - substances move from an area of high to low concentration (downhill) - passive process, ending with equalibrium

diffusion

- change over space | - difference in the concentration of a chemical form from one place to another

concentration gradient

-oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroids, urea, and water _____ diffuse through membrane

CAN

- gradient - temp - mass - area - distance -are all factors of ____

diffusion

-passive process -substances move freely through the lipid bilayer of membranes of cells without help of membrane transport proteins EX: nonpoloar, hydrophobic molecules such as 02, C02, nitrogen gases, fatty acids -small, uncharged polar molecules suck as water and urea

simple diffusion

- still follows the gradient - solute moves down the gradient through a membrane channel - many are "gated" opening in response to a stimulus (commonly, voltage)

channel mediated facilitated diffusion

-substance moves down its concentration to cross the membrane using only its own kinetic energy (energy of motion)

passive processes

- cellular energy is used to drive substance uphill against its concentration, the cellular energy used is in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - ionic concentration gradients

active processes

-substances may enter and leave cells is an active process in which tiny, spherical membrane sacs called ____ are used

vesicles

- passive process, but requires a carrier (transporter) molecule - an open channel could bind a carrier from the carrier cytosol as well-transport could be reversed if the gradient changes - limited carriers=transport maximum and saturation

carrier mediated facilitated diffusion

The number of carriers available in a plasma membrane places an upper limit, called the ____, facilitated diffusion can occur

transport maximum

____ are integral membrane proteins that allow specific, small inorganic ions to pass across the membrane by facilitated diffusion

channels

____ are integral membrane proteins that undergo changes in shape in order to move substances across the membrane by facilitated diffusion

carriers

- passive process - solute builds up on one side of the membrane (the concentration gradient grows) - water (solvent) moves instead of solute

osmosis

-any solution in which a cell (RBC) maintains its normal shape and volume

isotonic solution

- a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than the cytosol inside the RBCs - water rushes in

hypotonic solution

- has a higher concentration of solutes than does the cytosol inside RBCs - water rushes out and causes the cell to shrink (crenates)

hypertonic solution

- indirectly powered by ATP - uses gradient by primary active transport - carrier protein binds to Na and another substance and then changes shape so that both substances can cross at the same time

secondary active transport

- indirectly powered by ATP - uses gradient by primary active transport - carrier protein binds to Na and another substance and then changes shape so that both substances can cross at the same time

secondary active transport

-moving two substances in opposite directions across the membrane is called ____

antiporters

Reasons for ____: - maintain cell volume by regulating tonicity (homeostasis) - generate electrical signals - regulate pH - dietary glucose and amino acids

diffusion

-movement of substance into a cell in vesicles

endocytosis

-also called pinocytosis or cell drinking, a form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are taken up

bulk phase endocytosis

- plasma membrane folds inward and forms a vesicle containing a droplet of ECF - the vesicle detaches or pinches off from the plasma membrane and enters the cytosol - within the cell, the vesicle fuses with lysosomes, where enzymes degrade the engulfed solutes

bulk phase endocytosis

- normal life of the cell - consists of 3 stages G1, S, and G2 - cell does most of its growing in this phase

interphase

- normal life of the cell - consists of 3 stages G1, S, and G2 - cell does most of its growing in this phase

interphase

- DNA replication occurs | - last up to about 8 hours

S phase

- cell metabolically | - duplicates organelles and cytosolic components

G1 phase

- cell growth continues | - enzymes and other proteins are synthesized

G2 phase

- normal process on hold in order to divide | - result is two identical cells

mitotic phase

- the distribution of two sets of chromosomes into separate nuclei - somatic cell division - 4 stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

mitosis/nuclear division

- chromatin fibers condense into paired chromatids - nucleolus and nuclear envelops disappear, - each centrosome moves to an opposite side of the cell

prophase

- chromatin fibers condense into paired chromatids - nucleolus and nuclear envelops disappear, - each centrosome moves to an opposite side of the cell

prophase

-centromeres of chromatid pairs line up

metaphase

- nuclear envelops and nucleoli reappear - chromosomes resume chromatin form - mitotic spindle disappears

telophase

- the reproductive cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries,testes) - produces gametes in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half, not identical cells

meiosis

-_____ begins with a diploid starting cell and ends with two cells, each with the haploid number of chromosomes

meiosis I

- during ____, each of the two haploid cells formed during meiosis I divides - the net result is four haploid gametes that are genetically different from the original diploid starting cell - most similar to mitosis

meiosis II

-a measure of the solutions ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content

tonicity

-a measure of the solutions ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content

tonicity

- the higher the column of solution on one side, the more pressure it exerts on the other side, pressure exerted in this way by a liquid known as ____ - forces water molecules back to the other side

hydrostatic pressure

- solution with impermable solute exerts a force called ____ - its proportional to the concentration of the solute particles that cannot cross the membrane - the higher the solute concentration, the higher the solutions ____

osmotic pressure

A group of cells that usually have a common origin in an embryo and function together to carry out specialized activities

tissue

4 basic tissue types :

epithelial connective muscular nervous

- tissue that covers body surface - lines hollow organs - forms glands

epithelial

- tissue that protects and supports the body - storage for fat - helps provide body with immunity

connective

- tissue that generates movement | - generates heat

muscular

- tissue that detects changes in body | - generates signals

nervous

-contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells

cell junctions

- weblike strands of trans-mb proteins that fuse together outer surfaces - seal passageways between adjacent cells - inhibit the passage of substances between cells and prevent the epithelial tissue of the digestive and urinary systems from leaking

tight junctions

- contains plaque, dense layer of proteins, connects to microfilaments - have _____, which are trans-mb glycoproteins that join cells - _____ in epithelial cells, resist seperation

adherens junction cadherins adhesion belts

- contains plaque, but connected to the intermediate filaments, which extend through cytosol to the other side - spot welding = strong - epidermis, cardiac muscle, resist huge amount of stress

desmosomes

- hemi (half) a desmosome - one side is the same but they dont connect cell to basement membrane - they are integrin, not cadherin - integrin attach the protein laminin

hemidesmosome

- membrane proteins called connexins form fluid-filled tunnels - allows transfer of small molecules and ions but not large molecules - developing embryo, as well as nervous and muscle tissues - rapid communication

gap junctions

- ____ tissue with many cells tightly packed together and little to no extracellular matrix - ____ tissue with a few scattered cells surrounded by large amount of extracellular matrix

- epithelial | - connective

- _____ arranged in two general patterns 1. covering and lining various surfaces 2. forming the secreting portions of galnds Functions: protects, and scretes ( mucus, hormones, and enzymes), absorbs (nutrients), and excretes (substances from urinary tract)

epithelial tissue

- ____ of an epithelial cell faces the body surface, and body cavity, the lumen of an internal organ, or a tubular duct - may contain cilia or microvilli

apical surface

- _____ of an epithelial cell faces the adjacent cells on either side - may contain tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and/or gap junctions

lateral surfaces

- ____ the deepest layer of epithelial cells adhere to extracellular materials such as basement membrane - hemidesmosomes anchor the epithelium to the basement membrane

basal surface

- is a thin extracellular layer that commonly consists of two layers, the basal lamina and reticular lamina - found between epithelial and connective tissue

basement membrane

- closer to and secreted by the epithelial cells - contains proteins such as laminin and collogen, as well as glycoproteins and proteoglycans - adhere to integrins in hemidesmosomes and to basement membrane

basil lamina

- is closer to the underlying connective tissue | - contains proteins such as collagen produced by connective tissue cells call fibroblast

reticular lamina

-epithelial tissue are ____, relying on the blood vessels of the adjacent connective tissue to bring nutrients and remove waste

avascular

- forms the outer covering of the skin and some internal organs - forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities, and the interior of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems

covering and lining epitheliam/sutface epithelium

-makes up the secreting portion of glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal gland, sweat glands, and digestive glands

glandular epithelium

3 arrangements of cells in layers:

simple epithelium pseudostratified epithelium stratified epithelium

-is a single layer of cells that functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, or absorption

simple epithelium

- appears to have multiple layers of cells because the cell nuclei lie at different levels and not all cells reach the apical surface - actually a simple epithelium because all its cells rest on the basement membrane - cells that do extend to the apical surface may contain cilia, other (goblet cells) secrete mucus

pseudostratified epithelium

-consists of two or more layers of cells that protect underlying tissues in locations where there is considerable wear and tear

stratified epithelium

- a single layer of flay cells that resembles a tiled floor - allows rapid exchange - ex: CV, lymphatic, lungs, kidneys - function: present at sites of filtration

simple squamous epithelium

- is a single layer of cubed shaped cells, centrally located nucleus - secretes and absorb - kidneys, many glands

simple cuboidal epithelium

- found in GI tract, ducts of glands - microvilli maximize surface area for absorption - have goblet cells that secrete mucus

non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium

-modified columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucus, slightly sticky fluid, at their apical surface

goblet cells

- respiratory tract, fallopian tubes and uterus | - cilia beat in unison, moving particles along the surface

ciliated simple columnar epithelium

- absorbs and secretes | - larger ducts of many glands

noncilated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

- upper respiratory tract | - secretes mucous trap particles, sweep upward, away from lungs

ciliated pseud`ostratified columnar epithelium

- 2 + layers of cells - those on apical surface are far from the blood supply, they dehydrate and toughen up. Cells die, slough off, and are replaced - function: protection

stratified squamous epithelium

- 2 + layers of cubes - used for protection - limited secretion and absorption

stratified cuboidal epithelium

- basal layers are irregular - apical layer is regular - used for protection and secretion

stratified columnar epithelium

- has a variable appearance - as tissue is stretched , cells become flatter - lines urinary bladder - allows urinary organs to stretch

transitional epithelium (urothelium)

-consists of epithelium that secretes substance into ducts, onto a surface, or eventually into the blood

glands

- (inside) called hormones, enter the intestinal fluid and then diffuse into the bloodstream without flowing through a duct - maintains homeostasis - Ex: pituitary gland, pineal gland

endocrine glands

- (outside) secrete their products into the ducts that empty onto the surface of a covering and lining epithelium such as the skin surface or the lumen of a hollow organ - produce sweat, oil, earwax - Ex: sweat glands, oil glands

exocrine glands

- synthesized on ribosomes attached to rough ER, produced by golgi complex - released by exocytosis - these are what most exocrine glands are - ex: salivary glands, pancreas

merocrine glands

- exocrine gland that accumulate their secretory product at the apical surface of the secreting cell - that portion is pinched off by exocytosis to release secretions - cell repairs itself and repeats process - function: secretion of milk fats

apocrine glands

- exocrine gland that accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol - ruptures and becomes the secretory product - secretion contains large amount of lipids from plasma membrane and intracellular membranes - cell replaced by a new one - ex: sebaceous gland

holocrine glands

- one of the most abundant and widely distributed tissues in the body - variety of functions

connective tissue

- in connective tissue, material located between its widely spaced cells - consists of protein fibers, and ground substance, the material between the cells and fiber

extracellular matrix

- -component of a connective tissue between the cells and fibers - may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified - supports cells, binds them together, stores water, and provides a medium for exchanging substances between blood and cells

ground substance

- in connective tissue, made of collogen and glycoproteins | - provide support in blood vessel walls and form branching networks around various cells

reticular fibers

- in connective tissue, stretchable but strong fibers made of proteins, elastin, and fibrillin - found in skin, blood vessels, and lung tissue

elastic fibers

- in connective tissue, are strong, flexible bundles of protein collogen - most abundant protein in body

collogen fibers

- an embryonic connective tissue, irregular shaped cells embedded in semifluid ground substance - located under skin and along bones of embryo - forms almost all other types of connective tissue

mesenchyme

- an embryonic connective tissue, has widely scattered fibroblast in vicous, jellylike ground substance - located in umbilical cord - function: support

mucous (mucoid)

- loose connective tissue, widely distributed, randomly arranged fibers and cells - in and around nearly every body structure - provides strength, elasticity, and support

aveolar connective tissue

- loose connective tissue, has cells derived from fibroblast - large centrally droplet - located deep in subcutaneous layer - reduces heat loss through skin

adipose connective tissue

- loose connective tissue, is a fine interlacing network of reticular fibers - located on stroma - forms stroma of organs

reticular connective tissue

- dense connective tissue, rows of collagen fibers and fibroblast - forms tendons and ligaments - strong attachment withstand tension

dense regular connective tissue

- dense connective tissue, made of collagen fibers, irregularly arranged - often occurs in sheets (fasciae), tissue beneath skin and around muscles - provides tensile (pulling) strength in many directions

dense irregular connective tissue

- dense connective tissue, made of elastic fibers with fibroblast between them - in lung tissue, trachea, bronchial tubes - allows stretching in varies organs

elastic connective tissue

- supporting connective tissue, contains a resilient gel (fibers not easily visible) - at ends of large bones, most abundant cartilage - provides smooth surface for movement of joints - has chondrocytes

hyaline cartilage

- supporting connective tissue, has chondrocytes visible thick bundles of collagen fibers - location symphysis - support joining structures together, strongest type of cartilage

fibrocartilage

- supporting connective tissue, has chondrocytes in threadlike network of elastic fibers - located in ears, larynx - provides strength and elasticity

elastic cartilage

- supporting connective tissue, contains lamellae and lacunae - located in compact and spongy bone - supports, protection, storage

compact bone tissue

- are concentric rings of extracellular matrix | - in compact bone tissue

lamellae

-small spaces between lamellae that contain osteocytes: mature blood cells

lacunae

-projecting from lacunae, networks of minute canals containing the processes of osteocytes

canaliculi

- lacks osteons | - consists of columns of bone called trabeculae, which contains lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae, and calaliculi

spongy bone

- one of the liquid connective tissue has a liquid extracellular matrix called blood plasma and formed elements - located within blood vessels - function: RBC, WBC, platelets

blood

- suspended in blood plasma | - RBC's, WBC's, platelets

formed elements

-a pale yellow fluid that consists mostly of water with a wide variety of dissolved substances

blood plasma

- the extracellular fluid that flows in lymphatic vessels | - function: WBC

lymph

-are flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of the body

membranes

-majority of membranes consist of an epithelial layer and an underlying connective tissue layer called ___

epithelial membranes

- membranes line body cavities that open to the outside | - protects with mucous

mucous membrane

- membrane line cavities that do not open directly to the outside - lubrication for lung, protects with a bearer

serous membrane

- membranes that line joints | - provides lubrication

synovial membrane

-skin covers the entire surface of the body and consists of a superficial portion called the epidermis and a deeper portion called dermis

skin cutaneous membrane

- tissue consists of elongated cells use muscle fibers, or myocytes that can use ATP to generate force

muscular tissue

- consists of long strips, cylindrical, striated fibers - voluntary - attached to bones via tendons - function: motion, posture, heat production. protection

skeletal muscle tissue

- striated fibers, attached by intercalated disc - involuntary - location: heart wall - pumps blood to all parts of body

cardiac muscle tissue

- consists of nonstriated fibers - involuntary - located in walls of hollow organs, eyes - function: motion

smooth muscle tissue

- consists of only two principal types of cells, neurons and neuroglia - nervous system - exhibit sensitivity to various types of stimuli

nervous tissue

-nerve cells, are sensitive to various stimuli

neurons

- tapering, highly branched and usually short cell processes | - major receiving or input portion of a neuron

dendrites

- of a neuron is a single, thin, cylindrical process that may be very long - output portion of a neuron

axon

-do not generate or conduct nerve impulses

neuroglia

Exam #1 Chapters 1, 3, and 4 Flashcards

(374 cards)