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Anatomy II > Exam 1 Study Guide > Flashcards

Exam 1 Study Guide Flashcards

(115 cards)

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1
Q

All cells, no matter what they do, are made of the same 4 building blocks:

A

carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids

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2
Q

Proteins consist of:

A

chain of amino acids

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3
Q

Nucleic acids provide

A

instructions for making proteins

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4
Q

Describe a catabolic reaction

A

hydrolysis of complex structures to simpler ones; aka breaking down reactions

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5
Q

Describe anabolic reactions

A

synthesis of large molecules from small ones; aka building reactions; ex: amino acids creating protein

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6
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

catabolism of food fuels to the capture of energy to form ATP in cells;

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7
Q

What are the three processes of cellular respiration?

A

glycolysis
krebs cycle
oxidative phosphorylation

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8
Q

Describe glycolysis

A

-Input: glucose
-anaerobic
-occurs within cytosol
-used for quick energy(ie: pasta before race)
-FINAL PRODUCTS: 2 pyruvic acids, 2 NADH, 2 ATP

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9
Q

Describe the Krebs cycle

A

-occurs in mitochondrial matrix
-output of pyruvic acid from glycolysis and oxygen are the input for krebs cycle
-produces NADH and FADH for electron donors to drive oxidative phosphorylation
-FINAL PRODUCTS: 8 NADH , 2 FADH, 6 CO2, 2 ATP

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10
Q

Describe oxidative phosphorylation

A

-directly uses oxygen
-NADH and FADH deliver H+ atoms that combine with oxygen(final electron acceptor)to form water
-pumped H+ creates proton gradient(negative inside, positive outside),
-H+ is attracted to negative matrix inside membrane & diffuses back to matrix via ATP synthesis

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11
Q

What are the inputs and outputs for oxidative phosphorylation?

A

INPUTS: NADH & FADH(from glycolysis and Krebs cycle are electron donors, Oxygen as final electron acceptor creating water
OUTPUTS: ATP and H2O

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12
Q

Describe the absorptive state.

A

-anabolism exceeds catabolism
-nutrients pools coming in through food and building up stuff
-when there is food in stomach
-primarily controlled by insulin

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13
Q

Describe the post absorptive state.

A

-breaking down glycogen
-running on stored material
-Goal: maintain blood glucose between meals

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14
Q

What are the sources of blood glucose?

A
  1. glycogenolysis in liver
  2. glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle
  3. lipolysis in adipose tissues and liver
  4. catabolism of cellular protein
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15
Q

How is extra glucose stored?

A

-triglyceride synthesis
-glucose is easily converted to fat

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16
Q

Describe high density lipoproteins(HDLs)

A

-highest protein content
-H for healthy
-transfer excess cholesterol to liver to be broken down

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17
Q

Describe low density lipoproteins(LDLs)

A

-cholesterol rich
-L for lousy
-transport cholesterol to peripheral tissues for membranes, storage, etc

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18
Q

Describe body temperature

A

-body temp. reflects balance between heat production and heat loss
-core has highest temperature
-shell(skin) has lowest temperature
-regulated by nervous system

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19
Q

What are the four mechanisms of heat transfer?

A
  1. radiation: loss of heat by infrared rays
  2. conduction: transfer of heat by direct contact
  3. convection: transfer of heat to surrounding air
  4. evaporation: heat loss due to evaporation of water from body surfaces; aka sweating
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20
Q

What is insensible heat loss?

A

heat loss by simply existing

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21
Q

What is sensible heat loss?

A

when body temperature rises and sweating increases water vaporization

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22
Q

The endocrine system…

A

dumps hormones into the blood from the endocrine glands.

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23
Q

What are target cells?

A

tissues with receptors for specific hormone; if it has a receptor, it is a target cell

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24
Q

Can water soluble hormones enter the cell?

A

No, they bind to the plasma membrane and affect the target cell by triggering chain reactions inside cell; ex: hormones

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25
Can lipid soluble hormones enter the cell?
Yes, lipid soluble hormones bind to DNA and directly activate genes; ex: steroid hormones
26
What is a gene?
DNA sequence that encodes a protein; all cells in the body have the same DNA
27
What controls hormones release by endocrine glands?
endocrine glands are stimulated to synthesize and release hormones in response to different stimuli
28
What are the three stimuli that stimulate endocrine glands?
-humoral stimuli -neural stimuli -hormonal stimuli
29
Humoral stimuli
changing blood levels of ions and nutrients stimulate secretion of hormones; aka: what's going on in the blood?
30
Neural stimuli
nerve fibers stimulate hormone release; nervous system; ex: fight or flight stress response
31
Hormonal stimuli
hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones; hormones bind to receive feedback mechanisms
32
Why do the electron transport chain complexes pump protons?
to create the electrochemical proton gradient
33
Endocrine glands secrete __________, which are recognized only by their ______ cells.
hormones; target
34
How do hormones work?
Hormones circulate in the blood, and only cells with receptors for that hormone are affected.
35
Hormones act at receptors in two ways:
1. water soluble hormones 2. lipid soluble hormones
36
What are second messengers?
intracellular chemical signals that connect plasma membrane events to internal metabolic machinery of cell
37
What are the two major lobes of the pituitary gland?
posterior pituitary lobe and anterior pituitary lobe
38
Describe the posterior pituitary lobe
contains neural tissue, stores hormones made by hypothalamus, which are oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone(ADH)
39
Describe the anterior pituitary lobe
-contain glandular tissue, makes hormones: GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL
40
Where are the pituitary lobes located?
base of brain below hypothalamus(derived from hypothalamus)
41
All pituitary hormones activate...
cyclic AMP second messenger systems except GH
42
What is a result of antidiuretic hormone?
makes you retain water in body
43
Antidiuretic hormone is also called
vasopressin
44
What are the two posterior pituitary hormones?
oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone(ADH)
45
What are the six hormones produced in the anterior pituitary lobe
-growth hormones(GH) -thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH) -adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH) -follicle stimulating hormone(FSH) -luteinizing hormone(LH) -prolactin(PRL)
46
Describe the pancreas
triangular typically behind stomach; has both exocrine and endocrine cells -contains acinar cells and pancreatic islets
47
What are acinar cells?
Exocrine cells that produce enzyme rich juice for digestion
48
What are pancreatic islets?
contain endocrine cells(alpha and beta)
49
Alpha cells produce ________.
glucagon(puts glucose in blood
50
Beta cells produce _______.
insulin(stimulates cells to take glucose out of blood)
51
Insulin and glucagon from the _______ regulate ______ ______ levels.
pancreas; blood glucose
52
________ stimulates pancreas to secrete more insulin. Activated by insulin
Osteocalcin
53
What does insulin do and where does it come from?
from pancreas; activates glucose to be taken out of blood to be used for skeletal muscle(or anything needed); also enhances membrane transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells
54
What stimulates insulin secretion?
-elevated blood levels of glucose and amino acids -intestinal GIP and parasympathetic stimulation
55
The absorptive state is primarily controlled by
insulin
56
Diabetes mellitus is caused by
inadequate insulin production or abnormal insulin receptors
57
Insulin triggers enzymes to
catalyze oxidation of glucose for ATP production-first priority
58
What is the primary stimulus of insulin?
elevated blood glucose levels
59
Type 1 diabetes is due to
the pancreas not making enough insulin
60
Type 2 diabetes is due to
insulin resistance
61
Describe leptin
hormone used for appetite control
62
Describe resistin
insulin antagonist
63
Describe adiponectin
enhances sensitivity to insulin
64
What is an example of a second messenger?
cAMP
65
Do lipid soluble hormones have receptors?
Yes, they have receptors in nucleus, thus binding to the DNA
66
Where are oxytocin and ADH produced and secreted?
produced and by posterior pituitary lobe
67
How are oxytocin and ADH similar in composition, yet different in function?
they have nearly identical molecular composition, but oxytocin is a strong stimulant of uterine contraction, while ADH prevents urine formation
68
What is thyroid hormone made from?
T4 and T3; thyroid affect every cell in body; major metabolic hormone
69
What is hematocrit?
the percent of blood volume that is RBCs
70
What are erythrocytes?
red blood cells; biconcave discs with no organelles; full of hemoglobin
71
What are the formed elements that make up blood?
erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
72
Hematopoietic stem cells can only turn into
blood cells
73
Heme is
pigment bonded to each globin chain that gives blood red color
74
Hemoglobin is
the bus for O2; binds reversible with oxygen
75
High oxygen in blood causes
scarlet colored blood
76
Low oxygen in blood causes
dark red blood
77
Erythropoiesis is
red blood cell production
78
Erythropoietin signals the
production of red blood cells
79
Too few RBCs leads to
hypoxia
80
Too many RBCs causes
increased blood viscosity
81
Platelets are _____ _________ used for ______ _________.
cell fragments; blood clotting
82
Platelets are derived from
megakaryoblasts
83
Platelets stick to _______ ______ via plasma protein.
collagen fibers
84
Hemostasis is
a series of reactions to stop bleeding
85
What are the three steps to hemostasis?
1. vascular spasm(restricts blood flow) 2. platelet plug formation(adhere to collagen fibers) 3. coagulation(clot)
86
Thromboembolic disorder causes
undesired clot formation
87
Bleeding disorders cause
abnormalities that prevent normal clot formation
88
What is fibrinogen?
4% of plasma proteins; produced by liver; forms fibrin threads of blood clot
89
Describe fibrin
causes plasma to become gel like trap for formed elements; used to form structural basis of clot
90
Thrombin strings _________ to make _____ mesh.
fibrinogen; fibrin
91
Prothrombin(inactive) is cut to form _______
thrombin(active)
92
No prothrombin=
no clotting
93
Plasmin is a
fibrin digesting enzyme
94
Antigens of ABO and Rh blood groups cause
transfusion reactions
95
What blood type is known as the universal donor?
O
96
What blood type is known as the universal recipient?
AB
97
Blood type B can only receive blood type __?
B and O
98
Blood type A can only receive blood type __?
A and O
99
Blood type O has what antibodies?
anti a and anti b
100
Blood is composed of
plasma, Buffy coat, and erythrocytes
101
The Buffy coat contains
leukocytes(WBCs) and platelets
102
Which blood cells are considered the only complete cells?
white blood cells
103
Red blood cells are dedicated to
respiratory gas transport
104
White blood cells are used to
preventing infection; immune defense
105
Leukocytosis is
the high WBC count over 11,000(normal response to infection)
106
Leukocytes can leave capillaries via
diapedesis
107
Diapedesis is
leaving blood stream to migrate to sight of wound looking to defend
108
What are the types of leukocytes based on abundance in blood
1. neutrophils 2. lymphocytes 3. monocytes 4. eosinophils 5. basophils
109
T cells and B cells...
mediate immunity
110
What is plasma?
non living fluid matrix that suspends the formed elements
111
Most blood cells originate in the
red bone marrow
112
Why is iron important in the blood?
necessary for erythropoiesis
113
What type of blood can someone with type O receive?
O, bc they have A and B antibodies
114
Why do patients with leukemia frequently have anemia and bleeding problems?
Those w leukemia have an overproduction of WBCs rather than RBCs and platelets.
115
Anemia is the cause of
abnormally low O2 carrying capacity

Anatomy II (10 decks)

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