Exam 2

Question 1

What are the aspects of tissue repair?

Answer 1

Fibrosis, found in Connective tissues, uses fibroblasts to replace damaged tissue. When fibrosis occurs in epithelial or muscle tissues, the fibroblasts create a scar.
Tissue regeneration by parenchyma, that is, the cells of the tissue regenerate the same cells that were damaged.

Question 2

What are the different tissue’s potentials for regeneration?

Answer 2

Good: Epithelial tissue, loose connective tissue, bone, dense irregular, (more vascularized)
Average: Dense regular, skeletal and smooth muscle tissue.
Poor: Cartilage, cardiac tissue, nervous tissue.
(May not be important to know)

Question 3

What are the epithelial membranes in the body?

Answer 3

Cutaneous membrane: Protects layers below
Epithelial tissue- Epidermis, Connective tissue (dense irregular and some areolar)- Dermis
Mucous membrane: any cavity in contact with outside environment.
Epithelial tissue- Secretory cells: moisten environment b/c external environment ++ dry, makes movement easier (goblet cells glands) Absorption: Absorb gases, nutrients, ions. Microvilli. Connective tissue: Lamina propria (Areolar T)
Serous Membrane: Lines “coelom,” sealed body cavities, and organs. Parietal lines cavity, visceral lines organ.
Epithelial: Mesothelium secrets serous fluid-lubricate space b/w organ & cavity 2 prevent friction damage. Connective: Areal holing ET to P/V layer

Question 4

What is the type of membrane that is not an epithelial membrane in the body?

Answer 4

Synovial Membrane: Provides a cushion and nutrients for cartilage b/w joints Only has Connective tissue
Cells: synoviocytes- specialized fibroblasts
Secretion: Synovial fluid, for cushion and lubrication
Tissue: Areolar and adipose

Question 5

What does the integumentary system do?

Answer 5

It protects against chemical and physical abrasions, water loss, and UV lights. It regulates body temperature. It secrets urea, salts, and water. It synthesizes gland products and vitamin D. It allows for sensation.

Question 6

What are the cells and accessory structures of the integumentary system?

Answer 6

Keratinocytes (keratin fibers), Melanocytes (melanin), Dendritic (Langerhans) cells (the immune response), and Tactile (Merkle) cells (light tough sensation)
“accessory” - spans integumentary layers
Hair, nails, and glands.

Question 7

Tell me about melanocytes.

Answer 7

Melanocytes produce melanin–a skin pigment–that it packages in melanosomes to be distributed to other cells. The other skin pigments are carotene and hemoglobin.

Question 8

What are the layers of the epidermis and what are found in each?

Answer 8

Stratum corneum- flattened, dead keratinocytes (thick layer), stratum lucidum- flattened, dead keratinocytes (thin layer - only found in thick skin),
stratum granulosum- keratohyalin granules (react with keratin to harden cells), lamellar granules (stores lipid to waterproof skin),
stratum spinosum- “spiny,” desmosomes, keratinocytes, dendritic cells. stratum basal- melanocytes, merkel cells, keratinocyte stem cells

Question 9

What are the cells and the regions in the Dermis?

Answer 9

Cells: Fibroblasts, mast cells, macrophages, leukocytes, and adipocytes
Papillary Region: areolar CT. free nerve endings (for sensation), tactile (Meissner’s) corpuscle (for sensation), dermal papillae (increase surface area for vessels- capillary loops and sensation- sensory receptors) Large are “friction ridges” fingerprints.
Reticular Region: Dense irregular CT, Blood vessels, Lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles, Hair follicles, glands

Question 10

What glands are found in the dermis?

Answer 10

Sebaceous glands (sebum: supple hair/skin, water retention, bacterial defense)
Sudoriferous Glands, Eccrine (thermoregulation, found anywhere on skin) and apocrine (Nutritious secretion that microbiome eats creating body odor. found with hair -often puberty hair)
Ceruminous Glands: Cerumen (traps debris, waterproof ear canal, like sebum cerumen is lipid but it is denser creating wax)
Mammary Glands: Milk secretion (provide nourishment to offspring, hormone activated)

Question 11

What are the aspects of hair?

Answer 11

Hair shaft (outside skin), hair root (in epidermis and dermis), arrector pili muscle (helps gland secrete), sebaceous gland, and bulb (location of growth and nutrients) (Cuticle-dead, flat keratinocytes, cortex-hard, melanin-carrying keratinocytes, medulla-large soft keratinocytes, hair matrix-keratinocyte stem cells and melanocytes, papilla-extension from dermis)

Question 12

What are the aspects of a nail? And what is it’s function?

Answer 12

Hyponychium (white of nail), body of nail (pink of nail), nail root (X see of nail), and nail matrix (keratinocyte stem cells).
Function: “Back support” for finger, pick up small objects

Question 13

What are the aspects of the hyppodermis?

Answer 13

Adipose CT, large blood vessels, and hair bulb. (the hypodermis is not part of the integumentary system, bit it allows the skin to move separate from the tissues below it)

Question 14

What are the forms of local cell communication?

Answer 14

Gap junctions: very rapid, tubes (proteins) connect cells
Contact-dependent: cells must touch by surface molecules binding. A specific type of c-d uses CAMs, Cell adhesion molecules
Chemicals: release into ECF, paracrine: cells within tissue or organ, autocrine: works on “self”

Question 15

What are the forms of long-distance cell communication?

Answer 15

electrical via nerve cells or hormonal into blood. A neurotransmitter is a chemical released from an electrically excited cell. A neurohormone is a hormone from an electrically excited cell.

Question 16

What are cytokines?

Answer 16

Cytokines are peptides released by any cell with a nucleus (macrophage, granulocyte, fibroblast, endothelial cell, mast cell, lymphocyte) that may be local or long-distance communication

Question 17

What is the general cellular signal pathways:

Answer 17

Ligand (signal) to receptor protein activation the receptor which then activates intracellular signal molecules causing the modification or synthesis of proteins.

Question 18

Where do what kind of signal molecules bind?

Answer 18

Lipophilic: Cytosolic or nuclear receptors
Lipophobic: cell membrane receptor

Question 19

What are the four major categories of receptors and what are their functions?

Answer 19

1. Ligand Gated Ion-channels: Simplest and have most rapid response
2. GPCR G protein coupled receptors: Large and complex family of membrane-spanning proteins. Bind to guanosine nucleotides
3. Catalytic receptors: receptor on one side enzyme on the other- will activate enzyme
4. Integrin Receptors: catalytic receptors that attach to the cytoskeleton

Question 20

Describe the major functions of the endocrine system and what are its three basic actions?

Answer 20

To control body processes with hormones
Long-term on-going body functions
Metabolism
Regulation of internal environment
Reproduction
Growth-change of size of tissues
Development- change of tissue characteristics with maturity

Three Actions:
1) Rate of enzyme reactions (ie glycogen to glucose enzyme activations
2) Ion/molecule transport across the cell membrane (ie glucose into the cell)
3) Change in gene expression and protein synthesis (i.e. steroid hormones)

Question 21

Define hormone, endocrine gland, and target cell.

Answer 21

Hormone: chemical messenger released into the blood
Endocrine gland: Organ that creates or releases hormones
Target cell: The cells that receive the hormone and illicit a response

Question 22

Nervous vs. Endocrine system body control: what are their pathways, what determines the target, what is the speed and duration of the response, and how is signal intensity coded?

Answer 22

Pathway: N-neurons, E-blood
Determination of target: N-Brain, E-Hormone receptors on target cells
Response: N-quick, but doesn’t last long E-more time (seconds-48hrs)
Intensity: N-frequency of signal E-Number of hormones released

Question 23

What are the three major chemical classes of hormones?

Answer 23

Steroid, peptide, amino acid-derived (amine)

Question 24

How is the hypothalamus related to the pituitary?

Answer 24

Anterior pituitary: Hypothalamus releases releasing/inhibiting hormones that stimulate the release of some of the anterior pituitary’s hormones. The hormones reach the a. p. by entering the primary capillary plexus of hp system then the hypophysial portal (hp) veins then the secondary capillary plexus of the hp system.
Posterior Pituitary: The hypothalamus creates hormones that travel down axons into the p. p. which the p. p. then releases.

Question 25

Where do the pituitary hormones go and what is their effect?

Answer 25

ADH: kidneys. Reabsorption of water, increased blood volume and increased blood pressure Oxytocin: Uterus, mammary glands, prostate, & brain: labor contractions, milk ejection, smooth muscle contraction (p), and increased feelings of contentment, bonding, and trust TSH: Thyroid gland, T3 T4 ACTH: Adrenal cortex: glucocorticoid secretion FSH: Follicles in ovaries, nurse cells in testes: stimulate follicle development and estrogen secretion and sperm maturation LH: Follicles in ovaries, interstitial cells in testes: ovulation and corpus luteum formation, androgen production: testosterone PRL: Mammary glands: Milk production GH: All body cells, but especially muscoskeletal: tissue growth, protein synthesis, lipid mobilization and catabolism MSH: Melanocytes: Stimulates melanin production

Question 26

Explain transducers, amplifiers, and cascades.

Answer 26

A transducer is a structure in the cell that translates an extracellular signal to an intracellular signal--a signal that the rest of the cell can understand--an ECF first messenger to an ICF second messenger An amplifier is an amplifier enzyme that a transducer activates to increase the intracellular message by creating many many second messengers A cascade is a second messenger process where a signal converts molecules from an inactive state to an active one.

Question 27

How does a GPCR function?

Answer 27

The G protein is the transducer coupled to a protein. The protein receptor changes shape releasing the G protein (which splits into three parts). This release causes changes in ion-channels and enzyme activity (such as adenylyl cyclase leading to cAMP which activates protein kinase leads to phosphorylation of proteins leading to cell response)

Question 28

Thyroid Gland: Anatomy, location, major hormones secreted, control pathways for hormone secretion, hormone target and effect.

Answer 28

A: "swiss cheese" full of follicles with follicular cells surrounding the follicles and parafollicular cells in between L: Found surrounding the trachea H: Follicular cells: Triiodothyronine (T3), Thyroxine (T4), Parafollicular cells: Calcitonin T3 & T4: controlled by TSH from the AP, targets most body cells to control cellular metabolism Calcitonin: controlled by hypercalcemia in the blood, targets osteoblasts, osteoclasts, kidneys to lower calcium levels, (reverse hypercalcemia), k: secrete Ca 2+ to urine, ob: more active, oc: less active

Question 29

What are the two types of hormone control?

Answer 29

Tonic: Increase/decrease Antagonistic: On or off

Question 30

How can one chemical signal produce two responses? What is an example of this?

Answer 30

By the receptors the chemical binds to. ie epinephrine vasoconstricting digestive vessels and vasodilating brain vessels

Question 31

Parathyroid Gland: Anatomy, location, major hormones secreted, control pathways for hormone secretion, hormone target and effect.

Answer 31

A: A mass of pink cells- chief cells L: 4-8 embedded in thyroid, neck, or chest H: Parathyroid Hormone C: Controlled by hypocalcemia in the blood Targets Osteoclasts to activate them and kidneys to cause them to not excrete Ca 2+ and to release calcitriol to tell the intestine to absorb more Ca 2+

Question 32

Pineal Gland: Anatomy, location, major hormones secreted, control pathways for hormone secretion, hormone target and effect.

Answer 32

A: Contains pink pinealocytes L: Structure located inferior and posterior of thalamus H: Melatonin controlled by Light/dark stimulus, targeting other cells in the brain to cause timing of sex maturation, day/night cycle, rhythmic variations in the body (temp, sleep, appetite) and produce antioxidants and detoxification

Question 33

Thymus Gland: Anatomy, location, major hormones secreted, control pathways for hormone secretion, hormone target and effect.

Answer 33

L: Mediastinum above heart H: Thymopoietin, thymosin C: targets Lymphocytes for lymphocyte maturation and development

Question 34

Adrenal Gland: Anatomy, location, major hormones secreted, control pathways for hormone secretion, hormone target and effect.

Answer 34

"Avocado" Cortex: "flesh" zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis Medulla: "pit" Chromaffin cells Location: Found above the kidneys Hormones: z. g: aldosterone (within the mineralocorticoids group) targets the kidneys to decrease K+ in the blood and for water retention by increasing Na+ absorption (which increases BP) z.f: cortisol (within glucocorticoid group), targeting most body cells (to increase metabolism) changing fatty and amino acids into glucose (increasing BGL). In moderate levels it increased the peripheral immune response and in excessive levels and suppresses the immune system. Controlled by ACTH z.r. Androgens (which can be converted to testosterone and estrogen, some cortisol) targets most body cells for the onset of puberty, provides estrogen for post-menopausal. Medulla: Chromaffin cells: epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine (20%) most body cells, increasing BP via vasoconstriction, vasodilation of brain, heart, and skeletal muscles, increased heart rate, dilation of bronchioles, increased BGL and metabolic rate

Question 35

Pancreas Gland: Anatomy, location, major hormones secreted, control pathways for hormone secretion, hormone target and effect.

Answer 35

A; Mass of darker stained cells with sections of lighter stained cells-pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans L: Deep to the stomach, inferior to the liver, superior to the small intestine H: Alpha cells- Glucagon controlled by low BGL, targeting the liver, the liver catabolizes glycogen and lactic acid to glucose Beta cells- Insulin controlled by high BGL, targeting most body cells to be more susceptible to glucose, inhibit fatty and amino acids converting to glucose and inhibits the liver to concert glycogen to glucose and stimulates liver to convert glucose to glycogen Delta cells- somatostatin controlled by normal BGL, targets other secreting cells in the pancreas to inhibit glucagon and insulin production, decreases the rate of absorption along the small intestine

Question 36

What are the differences between short- and long-term stresses on the body?

Answer 36

Short term causes the release of epinephrine Long term causes the release of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids and cortisol: increase blood pressure, suppress immune system, increases blood glucose levels

Question 37

What makes a chemical a hormone?

Answer 37

Secreted by epithelial and muscle tissue into the blood to affect a distant target in low levels of hormone. At the target a lipophobic (most peptide hormones but not thyroid hormone) hormone will be received on the membrane the response will depend on the receptor. A lipophobic molecule will be received in the cytosol or on the nucleus to cause a rapid cellular response or bind to DNA to activate genes to RNA to proteins

Question 38

What is the difference between a simple and complex hormone pathway?

Answer 38

Simple: The RESPONSE stops the stimulus Complex: The HORMONES in the pathway stops the stimulus

Question 39

What are the types of hormone interaction?

Answer 39

Synergism: the combined interactions of the hormones creates a larger effect than the sum of their different effects (ie glucagon + epinephrine + cortisol effect on BGL) Permissiveness: One needs the other to create a full response (ie GH and thyroid hormone on reproductive growth) Antagonistic: One cancels the effect of the other (ie glycogen and insulin)