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DCC: BIO 231 Lectures > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

A

Control of the ANS (sympathetic & parasympathetic organ responses- motor ctrl muscles & glands, mostly visceral organs)
Control of Endocrine system (via pituitary gland)
Links emotional/behavioral state from cerebrum with physical responses via fornix
Controls thirst- makes you consciously thirsty
Eating regulation- makes you consciously hungry
Control of body temperature- makes you sweat or shiver
regulation of sleep/wake cycle via control of pineal gland

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2
Q

What is the function of the epithalamus

A

Holds the pineal gland that secreted melatonin by control from the hypothalamus

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3
Q

What are the functions of the cerebellum?

A

Three lobes: Integration of equilibrium, balance (vestibule & semicircular canal info), proprioception (muscle spindles & joints info) and coordinates involuntary trunk and limb movements, posture, eye and head movements,
Arbor vitae (major interior white matter)
cerebellar cortex: Major grey areas, integration for cerebellum three lobes- modifies voluntary motions (working with basal nuclei to make very smooth movements), motor memory- initiates learned motor patterns- patterns taken over from the primary motor cortex involuntary

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4
Q

What are the functions of the strutures of the midbrain?

A

Cerebral peduncles: Stems of white matter containing axons for skeletal muscles–somatic motor tract–from cerebrum
Corpora Quadrigemina: superior colliculi. w/ visual reflexes, inferior colliculi. w/ auditory reflex
Substantia nigra: (dark with melanin) dopamine production
CN III, IV

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5
Q

What are the functions of the cranial nerves of the midbrain?

A

Oculomotor (CN III): motor, eye movements, iris muscle, ciliary muscles (lens)
Trochlear (CN IV): motor, eye movements

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6
Q

What is the reticular formation?

A

Structure not located in one area, Spinal cord, medulla, pons,
Function: Allows cerebrum to maintain an alert state
-not working: coma
some motor function to regulate breathing rate (section in thalamus)

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7
Q

What are the structures and functions of the pons?

A

Pons: White matter bridge between spinal cord/medulla and superior structures,
Reticular formation
Pyramidal Motor Tracts from cerebrum to pons to medulla
Cranial Nerve nuclei: numerous groups of cell bodies
CN V, VI, VII

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8
Q

What are the locations and functions of the cranial nerves of the pons?

A

Trigeminal (CN V): sensory: head & face, motor: chewing motion location: Lateral superior
Abducens (CN VI): motor: movements of eye Location: medial inferior
Facial (CN VII): Sensory: taste, Motor: saliva, tear secretion, facial muscles Location: inferior lateral (medial of lateral nerves)

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9
Q

What are the functions of the structures of the medulla oblongata?

A

Pyramids: continue somatic motor tracts form the pons, where 70-90% axons decussate
Nucleus Gracilis and nucleus cuneatus: gray matter, WHICH ARE the sensory pathway to cerebrum
Reticular formation: cardiac center for heart rate, vasomotor center for BP, respiratory center for respiratory rate, other centers: vomiting, swallowing, coughing, sneezing
CN VIII, IX, X, XII

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10
Q

What are the location and function of the cranial nerves of the medulla oblongata?

A

Vestibulocochlear (CN VIII): Sensory: audio stimuli and body position (cochlear branch for hearing and vestibular branch for balance and equilibrium
Glossopharyngeal (CN IX): Sensory: taste, general sensation from pharynx Motor: swallowing and salivation
Vagus (CN X): Sensory: sensation from visceral organs, Motor: stimulates smooth and cardiac muscle and digestive glands
Hypoglossal (CN XII): Motor: tongue movement, during speech and swallowing

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11
Q

What is the cranial nerve that does not originate from the brain?

A

Accessory (CN XI) that attaches to the cervical spinal cord
Motor: head movement and swallowing

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12
Q

What are the supporting structures of the spinal cord superficial to deep?

A

Vertebrae: bony protection
Epidural space: adipose tissue and blood vessels
Dura & arachnoid mater: stuck together
Subarachnoid space, pia mater, denticulate ligaments: pia to arachnoid “bungie cords” to stabilize spinal cord

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13
Q

What are the spinal cord regions and nerves? Include enlargement regions and where the spinal cord ends.

A

31 pairs of spinal nerves- named for the vertebra (intravertebral foramen) they pass through
8- cervical spinal nerves
12- thoracic spinal nerves
5- lumbar spinal nerves
5- sacral spinal nerves
1- coccygeal spinal nerve
Spinal cord enlargements- associated with limb areas
cervical enlargement and lumbar enlargement
Spinal cord end between L1-2: Conus medullaris below is cauda equina

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14
Q

What is a spinal tap? Where is it taken and why?

A

Sample of CSF to detect infection. Taken between L4 and L5 because there is no change of hitting the nervous tissue of the spinal cord.

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15
Q

What neurons are found in the areas of the gray matter of the spinal nerves?

A

Dorsal root: Sensory neurons- both somatic and visceral (autonomic)
Ventral root: Motor neurons- both somatic and visceral
Dorsal Horn: Cell bodies of interneurons that receive input with somatic and visceral sensory neurons
Lateral Horn: Visceral motor (autonomic) neurons
Ventral Horn: Somatic motor neurons

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16
Q

What are the structures of the white matter of the spinal cord and what do you need to know about them?

A

Dorsal white column: ascending tracts, taking sensory info superior
Lateral Column: Both ascending and descending tracks- sensory info superior and motor info inferior
Ventral Column: Both ascending and descending tracks

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17
Q

What are the aspects of the somatic sensory pathways? And where are the cell bodies?

A

First order neurons: Sensory neurons that sense stimulus and bring it to the spinal cord or the medulla oblongata
(cell body: dorsal root ganglion)
Second Order Neurons: Interneurons that bring the signal from the spinal cord/medulla o. to the thalamus
(cell body: brain stem (n. g./ c.) or spinal cord)
Third Order Neurons: Interneurons that bring the signal from the thalamus to the somatosensory cortex (cerebral cortex)
(cell body: thalamus)

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18
Q

What are the aspects of the somatic motor pathways?

A

Upper motor neurons: interneurons from the primary motor cortex (voluntary ctrl of skeletal muscle) or the reticular formation of the pons and medulla (involuntary ctrl of skeletal muscles)
Lower Motor Neurons: motor neurons originating in the ventral horn

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19
Q

What are rami?

A

The branches off of the nerve after it leaves the vertebra

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20
Q

What do the rami communicates do?

A

Autonomic nervous system signalling

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21
Q

What does the dorsal ramus to?

A

Collects and sends signals to the posterior trunk.

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22
Q

What do the ventral rami do?

A

Collect and send signals to areas lateral and anterior
w/o plexuses (T2-T11): intercostal nerves- lateral/anterior of trunk
w/ plexuses: axons mix between ventral rami to form plexuses

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23
Q

What are the spinal nerves of the cervical plexus, what are its sensory and motor supply, and what is its major nerve?

A

C1-C5,
sensory supply from the head, neck, and superior shoulder
motor supply from the neck, scapula, and diaphragm
Nerve: phrenic nerve attached to diaphragm (if damage in C1-C5 lead to dyspnea)

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24
Q

What are the spinal nerves of the brachial plexus, what are its sensory and motor supply, and what is its major nerves?

A

C5-T1 (C5-8)
Sensory supply: hand, arm, & shoulder
Motor supply: hand, arm, and shoulder
Axillary, musculocutaneous, median, ulnar, and radial nerve

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25
What are the sensory and motor of the axillary nerve?
Motor: Shoulder muscles Sensory: Shoulder skin
26
What are the sensory and motor areas of the musculocutaneous nerve?
Motor: Proximal arm flexor muscles Sensory: Lateral Forearm receptors
27
What are the sensory and motor areas of the median nerve?
Motor: Forearm flexor muscles Sensory: Anterior forearm & hand skin
28
What are the sensory and motor areas of the ulnar nerve?
Motor: Forearm flexor muscles Sensory: Medial hand skin
29
What are the sensory and motor areas of the radial nerve?
Motor: Proximal and forearm extensor muscles Sensory: Posterior upper limb & forearm & lateral potion of hand skin
30
Where are the lateral, medial, and anterior areas of the hand?
Lateral: Anterior: Base of thumb, Posterior: Thumb to half of ring excluding past distal knuckle (Radial nerve) Medial: Anterior & posterior: pinky to half of ring tip of finger to base of hand (Ulnar nerve) Anterior: Anterior: Thumb to half of ring tip of finger to base of hand except base of thumb, Posterior: Tip of fingers (Median nerve)
31
What are the spinal nerves of the lumbar plexus and it’s major nerve, what are their sensory and motor supply?
T12-L4 Sensory Supply: inferior abdomen, pelvic region, legs, foot Motor Supply: Abdominal and leg muscles Femoral nerve: L2-L4, quadriceps, skin of anterior thigh, medial leg from knee to foot
32
What are the spinal nerves of the sacral plexus, what are its sensory and motor supply, and what is its major nerve?
L4-S4 (L4-5) Sensory supply: Pelvic region, leg, foot Motor supply: Glutes, leg, urethra and rectum sphincter muscles Sciatic nerve:
33
What are the details of the sciatic nerve?
L4-S3 extends from lower back to foot, controls muscles of posterior thigh distal leg and foot sensory input from posterior leg to foot Sciatica
34
What are the spinal nerves of the coccygeal plexus, what is its sensory supply?
Nerves: S4-Co1 (S4-5) Sensory supply: Lower back around coccyx
35
What are the details of thermoreceptors?
Free nerve endings--dendrites have no specialized structures--detecting changes in temperatures Cold receptors; 10-40*C -below 10*C sensed as pain Heat receptors: 32-48*C
36
What do mechanoreceptors detect and what are the different types?
Detect: Mechanical physical changes (stretch, pressure, vibrations) Tactile (Merkel) discs: Found in the epidermis -light touch receptors Hair follicle receptors: Dermis -light touch receptors detecting hair bending Tactile (Meissner's) corpuscle: Dermis -small receptors: discriminative touch (able to distinguish between stimuli in a small area) Lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles: Dermis -deep pressure and initial vibration (vibration continue receptor deactivates) Bulbous corpuscles (Ruffini endings): Dermis and viscera (organs) -deep pressure & stretch Hair Cells: inner ear -vibrated by sounds, bent by motion/ gravity And technically baroreceptors
37
What do proprioceptors do and what are the different types?
Tell you where you are in space: -stretch in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, & Connective tissue covering s of bones and muscles - inform brain of movements (if completed correctly) Muscle spindles: in skeletal muscles -muscle stretch (causing reflex if stretch is significant) Golgi Tendon Organ -tendon stretch (caused by muscle contraction) (cause muscle to relax if stretch significant) Joint kinesthetic receptors: monitor joint position and motion
38
What are nociceptors and what do they detect?
Free nerve endings- dendrites without specialized structures Pain receptors triggered by extreme temperature changes, pinch, or release of chemicals from damaged tissue -Differs from thermoreceptors by plasma membrane receptors
39
What do photoreceptors detect and what types are there? What neurons are the stimuli sent to?
Respond to photons of light Cones: detect different wave lengths of color Rods: Detect light and dark Communicate with bipolar neurons then sensory neuron axons in the CN II
40
What do chemoreceptors detect and what types are there?
Respond to changes in chemicals (in the environment) Taste buds (Modified epithelial cells): Tongue and pharynx -Sensitive to chemicals called tastants: H+: sour, glucose: sweet, N: bitter, amino acids: umami, Na+: Salty -IX, VII Olfactory receptors: -sensitive to oderants -bipolar neurons (receptors) synapse in olfactory bulb to olfactory tract (CN I)
41
What do baroreceptors detect and where are they found?
Changes in blood pressure- detecting stretching of blood vessels -found in aorta and carotid arteries
42
What are interoceptors and exteroceptors?
They are categories of receptors Exteroceptors: Respond to stimuli arising outside body -in skin for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature -most special sense organs Interoceptors: Respond to stimuli arising in viscera and blood vessels -sensitive to chemical changes, tissue stretch, and temperature changes
43
What are the eight types of receptors?
Interoceptors/exteroceptors, nociceptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, proprioceptors, and baroreceptors.
44
Where are the aspects of the somatic motor neuron located and what is/are its neurotransmitter, target, and response?
Cell body: CNS, cranial nerve nuclei (such as primary motor cortex) and the ventral horn Axon: PNS, heavily myelinated "thick", very fast action potential Neurotransmitter: ACh Target: skeletal muscle Response: Excited (stimulated to produce a response- contraction)
45
Where are the aspects of the two-neuron autonomic motor neuron located and what is/are its neurotransmitter, target, and response?
Pre-ganglionic Cell body: Cranial nerve nuclei (to non-skeletal muscles), Lateral horn Axon: Lightly myelinated "thin," fast action potential Neurotransmitter: ACh Post-ganglionic Cell body: Ganglia (clusters of cell bodies in PNS) Axon: No myelin- slow Action potential Neurotransmitter: Epinephrine, norepinephrine, OR ACh - depending on specific neuron Targets: Smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands Responses: Excited or inhibited- depending on neurotransmitter and target
46
Where are the aspects of the one-neuron autonomic motor neuron located and what is/are its neurotransmitter, target, and response?
Pre-ganglionic Cell body: Lateral horn Axon: Lightly myelinated "thin," fast action potential Neurotransmitter: ACh Adrenal Medulla Hormone: Epinephrine, norepinephrine Targets: Smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands Responses: Excited or inhibited- depending on neurotransmitter and target
47
What are the parasympathetic effects on what organs?
Eye: + (excitatory) constrict pupil Salivary glands: + Heart: - Lungs: - (constricts airways) Stomach: + Pancreas: + Gallbladder: + Bladder: + Genitals: + (erection)
48
What are the sympathetic effects on what organs?
Eye: + (dilates pupil) Skin: + Salivary glands: - Lungs: + (Dilates airway) Heart: + Stomach: - Pancreas: - Liver: + Gallbladder: - Adrenal gland: + Bladder: - Genitails: + (ejaculation)
49
Where are the parasympathetic neurons located generally? And what is the length of their axons?
"Cerebro-sacral" division Pre-ganglionic: -Cell bodies: Nuclei of CN III, VII, IX, X or Lateral horn S2-S4 -Axons: long Post-ganglionic: -Cell bodies: terminal ganglia (near or in target organ) -Axons: Short
50
Where are the parasympathetic neurons located in the "cerebro" division?
Pre-ganglion CN III: Midbrain, post-ganglion: ciliary ganglion to iris or ciliary muscle Pre-ganglion CN VII: pons, post-ganglion: pterygopalatine ganglia to lacrimal gland or mucus membrane (nasal or oral) or submandibular ganglia to submandibular or sublingual gland "salivary gland" Pre-ganglion CN IX: medulla, post-ganglion: otic ganglion to parotid salivary gland Pre-ganglionic CN X: medulla *Longest axon, post-ganglion: terminal ganglia of thoracic and abdominal organs: Heart, larynx, trachea, bronchi, esophagus, stomach, abdominal blood vessels, liver and bile duct, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine rectum **Not Adrenal gland**
51
Where are the parasympathetic neurons located in the "sacral" division?
Pre-ganglionic neuron: -Cell bodies: lateral horn S2-S4 -Axons: form pelvic splanchnic nerves Post-ganglionic neurons: Cell bodies: terminal ganglia of abdominopelvic organs
52
Where are the sympathetic neurons located generally?
Pre-ganglionic neurons: Cell bodies: Lateral horn T1-L2, Axons: Short Post-ganglionic Neurons: Cell bodies: Sympathetic chain ganglia (lateral to spinal cord) or collateral ganglia (anterior to spinal cord) Axons: Long
53
What are the targets of the sympathetic chain ganglia?
Targets superior to diaphragm: -eye (iris), lacrimal gland, mucous membrane (nose and palate), submandibular gland, sublingual gland, mucous membrane-mouth, parotid gland, heart, larynx, trachea, bronchi, esophagus Sacral Splanchnic Nerves: targets in pelvic cavity -rectum, bladder, external genitalia
54
What are the targets of the collateral ganglia?
Targets inferior to the diaphragm in the abdominopelvic cavity -Stomach, abdominal blood vessels, liver and bile duct, pancreas, small intestine, rectum, kidney, gonads, external genitalia
55
What is the one sympathetic nerve that does not meet a post-ganglionic nerve?
The one that goes through the sympathetic chain ganglia directly to the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla
56
What role do the rami communicantes play?
In the sympathetic system Axons from the lateral horn enter the white ramus then synapse with a post-ganglionic neuron in the sympathetic chain ganglia then exits through the gray ramus and goes to the ventral ramus to the target
57
What defines cholinergic neurons? What neurons are considered cholinergic?
Neurons that secrete Acetylcholine ALL Sympathetic and parasympathetic pre-ganglionic neurons ALL parasympathetic post-ganglionic neurons Sympathetic post-ganglionic neurons innervating sweat glands
58
What defines cholinergic receptors? What are the two types?
A receptor that receives Acetylcholine. Nicotinic receptors and muscarinic receptors
59
What are the neurons characterized as nicotinic receptors and what is their function?
All sympathetic and parasympathetic post-ganglionic neurons and chromaffin cells Function: Excitation of post-synaptic cell
60
What are the neurons characterized as muscarinic receptors and what is their function?
Targets (effectors) innervated by parasympathetic post-ganglionic neurons Sweat glands, innervated by sympathetic post-ganglionic neurons Function: Excitation or inhibition of post-synaptic cell
61
What defines adrenergic neurons and what neurons are considered adrenergic?
Neurons that release norepinephrine and epinephrine Majority of sympathetic post-ganglionic neurons (those not contacting sweat glands)
62
What are the two types of adrenergic receptors, what are their subtypes and what response do they cause?
Alpha (a) and beta (B) receptors. Subtypes - a1 & B1 receptors: mostly inhibition - a2 & B2 receptors: mostly excitation - B3 receptors: lipolysis always excitation
63
What are the functions of muscle tissue and what tissues fulfill them?
Producing body movements (by skeletal) Stabilizing body positions- maintain posture, strengthen joints (by skeletal) Storage/Movement of substances -Cardiac: move blood -Smooth: move food/ ctrl blood speed, & form some sphincters for storage (ctrling entrance/exit) -skeletal: lymph, venal blood pressure, and form some sphincters for storage Generating heat: (Majorly by skeletal) (thermogenesis)
64
What is another name for a muscle cell?
Muscle fiber- because they are so long and thin
65
What connective tissue covers muscle and what is its function?
Dense irregular connective tissue: carries nerves and blood vessels and forms tendons where muscle attaches to bone (attaches each layer to tendon)
66
What are the three connective tissue layers and what do they surround?
Epimysium: surrounds whole muscle Perimysium: surrounds fascicle (that is, a bundle of muscle fibers) Endomysium: surrounds muscle fiber
67
What are the belly, origin, and insertion of a muscle?
Belly: Fleshy portion of muscle Origin: Attachment of muscle to stationary bone (ie scapula and humerus) Insertion: Attachment of bone moved by muscle during contraction (ir ulna)
68
What controls a skeletal muscle?
A somatic motor neuron- each muscle fiber must be attached to the motor neuron to contract
69
What is a motor unit? What is the all-or-none principle and what is the innervation ratio?
The somatic motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it stimulates All-or-none: either stimulates all of the motor unit with an action potential or none of it Innervation ratio: Number of neurons to the number of fibers (1:12, 1:200)
70
What is a muscle twitch, what kind of signal causes it, and what are its phases?
Brief contraction of all muscle fibers of a motor unit -motor neuron sends action potential that transfers from an electric to a chemical and back to an electric signal Phases: 1) Latent Phase: Brief pause of no contraction: stimulation arises to twitch begins to produce force 2) Contraction phase: Generation of tension to max tension 3) Relaxation Phase: max tension to resting state during which tension decreases
71
What is the significance of different twitch times and what are some examples of these differences?
Twitch does not happen at the same rate depending on identity of muscle fibers - ++ fast (ie eye muscle) - slower (ie gastrocnemius) - ++ slow (ie soleus, postural muscles)
72
How can twitch force vary?
Single twitch: muscle relaxes completely between stimuli Summation: muscle does not fully relax because a second stimuli arrives during the relaxation phase causing a greater tension Summation may continue until it meets maximum tension either unfused or complete/fused tetanus Unfused tetanus: stimuli are far enough apart for some muscle relaxation Complete tetanus: muscle reaches steady tension- no relaxation until muscle fatigue
73
What are the three methods of increasing contraction force?
1) Number of active motor units 2) Size of muscle fibers in motor unit 3) Length of sarcomere
74
What happens in the number of active motor units method of changing contractility?
*This is the major way to change force* Subthreshold voltage change: no motor unit stimulation Threshold voltage change: minimal motor unit stimulation Above threshold voltage change more and more motor units may be stimulated until max contraction is reached
75
What are the general (key) properties of the muscular system?
Excitability: cells can become active (change membrane potential) due to stimulation Contractibility: Excited cells contract Extendibility: Extent/stretch beyond resting state when inactive (X excited) Elasticity: Returns to resting state after released from stretch

DCC: BIO 231 Lectures (5 decks)

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