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DCC: BIO 231 Lectures > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three endocrine pathologies? And what do they mean?

A

Primary- issues with the last endocrine gland in the pathway (most common), secondary- issue with pituitary, tertiary- issue with hypothalamus (rare)

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2
Q

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

A

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Central Nervous System (CNS)

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3
Q

What are the divisions of the PNS?

A

Sensory and efferent divisions

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4
Q

Tell me about the two types of cells of the nervous system.

A

Neurons: Functional unit of the nervous system, large, few, amitotic (mostly),
Neuroglia: Supports nervous tissue cells, small,
numerous, mitotic

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5
Q

What are the types of neuroglia?

A

CNS: Astrocytes, microglial, ependymal, oligodendrocytes
PNS: satellite cells, Schwann cells

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6
Q

Tell me about astrocytes.

A

Most abundant CNS neuroglia
Function: regulate neurotransmitter and ion levels in ECF, transport materials between blood vessels and neurons (helping to form blood brain barrier), aid in synapse formation, communicate via gap junctions, influence neuron functioning,

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7
Q

Tell me about microglial cells.

A

Act as macrophages
Function: Phagocytosis

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8
Q

Tell me about ependymal cells.

A

Simple epithelium- most possess cilia, covers interior spaces in CNS
Functions: Produce/circulate CSF

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9
Q

Tell me about oligodendrocytes.

A

Function: forms myelin sheath around multiple axons in CNS

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10
Q

Tell me about Satellite cells.

A

Surround cell bodies of neurons in PNS
Functions: transport materials between blood vessels and neuron, maintains chemical environment around neuron

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11
Q

Tell me about Schwann Cells.

A

Each cell surrounds (one section of) one axon in PNS
Functions: maintain and repair of axons w/ w/o myelin sheath, Form myelin sheath in PNS by enveloping an axon, rotating around the axons, forcing cytoplasm from between membranes leading to tight membrane wrappings

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12
Q

What are the structures of a neuron?

A

Dendrites, cell body, mitochondria, nucleolus, nucleus, Nissl body, axon hillock, axon, collaterals/axon terminals, terminal bouton/synaptic end bulb

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13
Q

What is the neuron structural classification and what functional classifications fall in them?

A

Multipolar (interneurons, motor neurons), bipolar (special sensory neurons (vision/smell)), and pseudounipolar (sensory neurons)

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14
Q

What are the functional classifications of neurons?

A

Sensory: afferent route, sensory to CNS
Motor: efferent route, signals from CNS
Interneurons: within CNS, integrate sensory signals, initiate motor output

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15
Q

Graded potential:

A

It is graded–varying strength, found in cell body and/or dendrites, localized (short-distance) voltage change, post-synaptic, or generator potentials

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16
Q

What are EPSP and IPSP?

A

EPSP: excitatory post synaptic potential, causes partial depolarization, Na+ enters/ K+ trapped
IPSP: inhibitory post synaptic potential, causes hyperpolarization, Cl- enters/K+ exits

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17
Q

What is the temporal and spatial summation?

A

Temporal: the signal from same neuron sent more rapidly
Spatial: different presynaptic neurons influencing same postsynaptic at the same time

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18
Q

Action potential:

A

Always the same size depolarization (not graded), propagates along axon-begins at trigger zone (initial segment of axon) due to threshold level voltage change, voltage strength does not degrade

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19
Q

What are the phases of an action potential and what is happening with the voltage and the voltage gated channels (VGC)?

A

Resting: Na+ VGC activation gate: closed, Na+ VGC inactivation gate: open, K+ VGC activation gate: closed, Voltage: -70mV
Depolarizing: Na+ a: open, Na+ ina: open, K+ a: closed (opening slowly), +30mV
Repolarizing: Na+ a: Open, Na+ Ina: Closed, Ka+ a: open, -70mV
Hyperpolarizing: Na+ a: closed, Na+ ina: open, Ka+ a: open (closing slowly), -90mV
Resting

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20
Q

Refractory Period:

A

Either Absolute or relative
Absolute refractory period: Time between the trigger and halfway through the repolarization phase- Absolutely no second action potential
Relative refractory period: Time between halfway through the repolarization to the end of the hyperpolarization, only suprathreshold signals with cause a second action potential–redepolarization cancels out the hyperpolarization voltage change

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21
Q

What is the difference between continuous and saltatory conduction?

A

Continuous: without myelin sheath each segment of the axon must go through the action potential phases
Saltatory: with myelin, only the areas of the nodes of Ranvier must go through the action potential phases–AP leaps between the nodes

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22
Q

What are the types of synapses?

A

Electrical synapses which are gap junctions, they allow for faster communication that is synchronized-so fast that cells can almost work in unison, only depolarization, found in SOME neurons of the brain
Chemical synapse: synaptic end bulb or varicosity, causes either depolarization or hyperpolarization, found in every other neuron-target cell contact

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23
Q

What are the steps of a chemical synapse?

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A

1) Action potential (Na+) arrives at and depolarizes axon terminal
2) Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open and Ca 2+ enters cells
3) Ca 2+ triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicles
4) Neurotransmitters cross synaptic cleft and bind with or on postsynaptic cell
5) Neurotransmitter binding initiates response in postsynaptic cell

24
Q

What prevents neurotransmitter binding?

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A

Enzymes degrading the neurotransmitter, reuptake (reabsorbed by presynaptic neuron), dissipation away from synaptic cleft

25
What are the kinds of Neurocrine receptors?
Ionotropic: ion channel- fastest Metabotropic: Activates G-protein, opens ion channel- slower than ionotropic, may produce second messenger- slower than metabotropic opening ion channel
26
What are the seven classes of cell-to-cell neurotransmitters? And which are the most common in this course?
Small molecule neurotransmitter, amines, amino acids, peptides, purines, gases, and lipids, Most common: small molecule neurotransmitter, amines, peptides
27
How is the strength of a stimulus coded to another neuron or target?
A weak stimulus releases little neurotransmitter A strong stimulus releases more neurotransmitter
28
Acetylcholine: what type of neurotransmitter is it, what type of response does it illicit, where is it used, and what is its claim to fame?
Type: Small molecule neurotransmitter Response: inhibitory or excitatory Where: CNS, somatic motor neurons, Fame: Major signaling molecule of targets by the parasympathetic
29
Epinephrine & norepinephrine: what type of neurotransmitter is it, what type of response does it illicit, where is it used, and what is its claim to fame?
Type: Amine Response: Inhibitory or excitatory Where: CNS Fame: Major signaling molecule of targets by Sympathetic
30
Dopamine: what type of neurotransmitter is it, what type of response does it illicit, where is it used, and what is its claim to fame?
Type: Amine Response: Excitatory or inhibitory Where: CNS Fame: Motor pathways, and reward pathways
31
Substance P: what type of neurotransmitter is it, what type of response does it illicit, where is it used, and what is its claim to fame?
Type: Neuropeptide Response: Inhibiting Where: PNS, CNS Fame: Stimulates pain by inhibiting dopamine release
32
Endogenous Opioids: what type of neurotransmitter is it, what type of response does it illicit, where is it used, and what is its claim to fame?
"Endorphins" Type: Neuropeptide Response: Inhibitory Where: CNS Fame: Inhibits substance P, effects mimicked by morphine, heroin
33
What is the function of naloxone?
Greater affinity for opioid receptors than opioids, prevents other opioids from binding -effects are temporary
34
What is the function of the meninges?
Cover and protect brain and spinal cord, supports and protects blood vessels, contains CSF, forms brain partitions
35
What are the layers of meninges from the skull to the blood vessels?
Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and then pia mater
36
What are the choroid plexuses?
The capillary networks + ependymal cells from the pia mater in the ventricles, ependymal cells are lined by tight junctions that absorb substances from the capillaries, secrete CSF- nutrients from blood-into ventricles
37
What is the function of Cerebrospinal Fluid and where is it found?
Functions: support, protection, transport (of oxygen, nutrients, cell wastes, and hormones), Locations: ventricles, central canal, subarachnoid space
38
Dura Mater:
"Tough Mother" -Forms brain partitions between the cerebral hemispheres "falx cerebri" and between the cerebrum and cerebellum "tentorium cerebelli." -Surrounds and protects sinuses (containing venous blood)
39
Arachnoid mater:
"Spider Mother" includes subarachnoid space, contains medium blood vessels, Subarachnoid space allows CSF to flow over the nervous tissue. Protrusions of the arachnoid mater into the Dural sinus on the superior side of the brain is called arachnoid granules which allow CSF to enter the sinus
40
Pia mater:
Transparent membrane that contains capillaries (astrocytes line capillaries)
41
What is the circulation path of the CSF?
From the lateral ventricle in the cerebrum and third ventricle in the diencephalon to their choroid plexuses to the cerebral aqueduct of the midbrain, to the fourth ventricle between the cerebellum and the pons/medulla, and then either into the central canal of the spinal cord or the aperture in the fourth ventricle to the subarachnoid space to bathe the surface of the nervous tissue, then through the arachnoid granulation to the Dural sinus where the CSF is reabsorbed to the blood.
42
What is the cerebral cortex? And what are its five lobes?
The Cerebral cortex is the grey matter of the cerebrum along with the basal nuclei (ganglia) and limbic system Five lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, insular (behind temporal and frontal)
43
What are the linear sections of the embryos nervous system?
Prosencephalon: cerebrum & diencephalon, Mesencephalon: midbrain, Rhombencephalon: cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata, and finally the spinal cord.
44
What are the general brain activities and where are they located on the cerebral cortex?
Seeing: occipital lobe, Hearing: Temporal lobe, Speaking: Frontal lobe, Thinking: all areas of cerebral cortex because information is stored in different areas
45
What are the general functions of the cerebral cortex?
Sensory, motor, and association
46
What is one motor area of the cerebral cortex? Why is it noteworthy? Where is it located?
Primary motor cortex. It is the major motor area of the brain. It has voluntary motor regions at specific locations. Located on the precentral gyrus
47
What is a homunculus and what does it indicate?
A homunculus is a human image. The large areas of the homunculus indicate greater numbers of muscles to control or a greater number of sensory receptors.
48
What is one sensory area of the cerebral cortex? Why is it noteworthy? Where is it located?
Primary somatosensory cortex. It is the major sensory area of the brain. It has sensory regions mapped out at specific locations. It is located on the postcentral gyrus.
49
What are the association areas (a.a.) and what are their general lobe (l) locations and functions?
Visual a.a.: Temporal & occipital l, what it is you see Auditory a.a.: Temporal l, what it is you hear Somatosensory a.a.: parietal l, what it is you feel, Gustatory a.a.: Insular l, what it is you taste Prefrontal cortex: Frontal l, major thinking: (problem solving, personality, memory for object recall, complex problem solving, task management)
50
What are basal nuclei and what do they do?
They are patches of grey matter on the interior of cerebrum that involuntarily modify voluntary control by making starting/stopping smoother, controlling movement intensity, and inhibiting unnecessary muscle movements.
51
What is the limbic system?
A group of mostly gray-matter structures that are all very close together but are not necessarily related to one another.
52
What is included in the limbic system?
CN I (sensory: olfaction), hippocampus: mitosis (new neurons) memory (new memories), Amygdala: surprise/alarm White matter: Fornix: link limbic w/ cerebrum & diencephalon for information communication
53
What composes the white matter of the cerebrum?
Association fibers: connect areas within hemisphere Commissural fibers: connect hemispheres (corpus callosum) Projection fibers: connect cerebrum to an inferior area
54
What structures compose the diencephalon?
CN II: sensory, vision Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus
55
What are the functions of the thalamus?
To relay information to the cerebral cortex- sensory signals except olfactory, signals from other brain structures Filter out unnecessary information to help focus on a single stimulus

DCC: BIO 231 Lectures (5 decks)

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