Exam 2

Question 1

What is encoding?

Answer 1

Process involves initial formation of a memory code

Question 2

Three types of encoding

Answer 2

• Structural - physical structure (e.g., how a word looks)
• Phonemic – sounds (e.g., how a word sounds)
• Semantic – meaning (e.g., what the word means)

Question 3

Type of encoding results in the deepest level of processing

Answer 3

Semantic encoding

Question 4

What is the basic idea of dual coding theory?

Answer 4

memory is enhanced by
forming coinciding semantic and visual codes

Question 5

What is storage?

Answer 5

maintaining encoded information in memory over time

Question 6

Sensory memory

Answer 6

preserves
information in its original
sensory form for a brief time

Question 7

Short-term memory

Answer 7

limited-capacity store that can
maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds

Question 8

Rehearsal

Answer 8

repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about
information

Question 9

Chunking

Answer 9

grouping stimuli into meaningful chunks (e.g.,
grouping similar stimuli as a single unit)

Question 10

Long-term memory

Answer 10

Unlimited capacity store that can
hold information over lengthy periods of time

Question 11

Flashbulb memories

Answer 11

unusually vivid and detailed
recollections of the circumstances in which one learned of
momentous public events

Question 12

Declarative memory

Answer 12

handles factual information

Question 13

Non-declarative (procedural) memory

Answer 13

houses memory for actions,
skills, conditioned responses and emotional memories
• Ex: Remembering how to ride a bike or tie your shoes

Question 14

Schema

Answer 14

organized cluster of knowledge about a particular
object or event abstracted from previous experience with the
object or event

Question 15

Semantic networks

Answer 15

nodes
representing concepts, joined
together by pathways that
link related concepts

Question 16

How many items does recent research suggest we can store in our short-term memory?

Answer 16

Research suggests that we can store 4 ± 1 (between
3 and 5) items in our short-term memory without
rehearsal.

Question 17

We often refer to short-term memory as short-term _________ memory. This is because researchers have discovered that we can store and _____________ information in short-term memory.

Answer 17

Working and manipulate

Question 18

Name and define the four components of working memory.

Answer 18

• Central executive system –
  controls deployment of
  attention.
  • Phonological loop – allows
  us to temporarily hold verbal
  information; rehearsal
  • Visuospatial sketchpad –
  allows us to temporarily hold
  and manipulate visual images
  • Episodic buffer – allows the
  components to integrate
  information

Question 19

What is retrieval?

Answer 19

recovering information from memory stores

Question 20

Retrieval cues –

Answer 20

stimuli that help us gain access to memories

Question 21

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – temporary

Answer 21

temporary inability
to remember
something you
know

Question 22

Define retention –

Answer 22

The proportion of material retained (remembered)

Question 23

Name, describe, and identify examples of three methods for measuring retention –

Answer 23

-Recall measure – Requires one to reproduce information on their own
without any cues
• Recognition measure – Requires one to select previously learned
information from an array of options
• Relearning measure – Requires one to memorize information a
second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having
learned it before

Question 24

Retrieval failure

Answer 24

forgetting may be due to breakdowns in the
process of retrieval

Question 25

Motivated forgetting

Answer 25

idea that people can block out , forget upsetting or traumatic memories because there is motivation to do so

Question 26

Decay theory

Answer 26

forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time

Question 27

Interference theory

Answer 27

people forget information because of competition from other material

Question 28

Ineffective encoding –

Answer 28

people forget when information is not properly encoded (often attributable to lack of attention)

Question 29

Know the difference between: Retrospective and prospective memory

Answer 29

-Retrospective memory - involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information • Prospective memory - involves remembering to perform actions in the future

Question 30

Proactive and retroactive interference

Answer 30

Proactive interference – Old information interferes with the retention of new information • Ex: Calling your new partner by your old partner’s name. Retroactive interference – New information impairs the retention of old information • Ex: Getting a new phone number and forgetting your old phone number.

Question 31

Retrograde and anterograde amnesia

Answer 31

-Loss of memories for events that occurred prior to a head injury -Loss of memories for events that occur after a head injury

Question 32

Define cognition

Answer 32

mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

Question 33

Define and be able to differentiate between: Problems of inducing structure

Answer 33

-Problem solving - active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable -Problems of inducing structure – problems in which a person must discover the relations among the parts of the problem in order to solve it

Question 34

Problems of arrangement

Answer 34

problem in which a person must arrange parts in a way that satisfies some criterion.

Question 35

Problems of transformation

Answer 35

Problem in which a person must carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal.

Question 36

What is the incubation effect?

Answer 36

new solutions tend to surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem.

Question 37

Be able to identify examples of the four barriers to problem solving that we discussed in class

Answer 37

-Trial and Error – trying possible solutions sequentially and discarding those that are in error until one works. • Subgoals – dividing a problem into intermediate steps toward a solution. • Analogies – similarities between problems allow us to apply effective solutions that have been used in the past. • Incubation - new solutions tend to surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem.

Question 38

Availability heuristic

Answer 38

involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind.

Question 39

Representativeness heuristic

Answer 39

involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event.

Question 40

Identify and define the two primary forms of intelligence proposed by the Cattel-Horn-Carroll Theory of Intelligence

Answer 40

-Crystallized intelligence - knowledge that comes from prior learning and past experiences -Fluid Intelligence - being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems

Question 41

Know what IQ stands for

Answer 41

Intelligence quotient

Question 42

How is a normal distribution shaped?

Question 43

How is a normal distribution shaped?

Answer 43

• Standard score – locates test- takers precisely within a normal distribution (Mean = 100) • Standard deviation - statistical index of variability in a data distribution • Percentile rank - percentage of people who score at or below the score one has obtained

Question 44

What does a percentile rank indicate?

Answer 44

percentage of people who score at or below the score one has obtained

Question 45

What is the difference between reliability and validity? Are intelligence tests reliable and valid?

Answer 45

• Reliability – the measurement consistency of a test; a reliable test yields similar scores when repeated. • IQ tests are exceptionally reliable (~.90) • Validity – the ability of the test to measure what it was designed to measure • IQ tests tend to be valid measures of the intelligence necessary to do academic work (but not of other types of intelligence).

Question 46

Define reaction range

Answer 46

a genetically determined range within which one’s IQ is likely to land

Question 47

Maturation

Answer 47

development that reflects the unfolding of one’s genetic blueprint

Question 48

Developmental norms

Answer 48

typical age at which individuals display various behaviors and abilities

Question 49

Know the three stages of prenatal development and the order in which they occur

Answer 49

1. Germinal–first two weeks after conception; zygote implants itself in uterine wall and placenta forms 2. Embryonic – occurs from week two until the end of the second month; Most vital organs and bodily systems begin to form 3. Fetal – lasts from two months to birth; rapid bodily growth

Question 50

Secure

Answer 50

play and explore with primary caregiver present become upset when they leave are quickly calmed by their return

Question 51

Anxious-ambivalent

Answer 51

are anxious even when primary caregivers are near protest when they leave are not comforted when they return

Question 52

Avoidant

Answer 52

seek little contact with their primary caregivers often are not distressed when they leave avoid contact when caregivers return

Question 53

Disorganized

Answer 53

do not consistently display any of the other three attachment types tend to fluctuate between anxious- ambivalent and avoidant

Question 54

Differentiate between nativist, behaviorist, and interactionist theories of language development

Answer 54

• Behaviorist theories – humans learn language through conditioning and observational learning • Nativist theories – humans are biologically programmed to produce language • Interactionist theories – language acquisition is a result of biological programming and interaction with one’s social environment

Question 55

Fast mapping define and identify examples

Answer 55

the term used for the hypothesized mental process whereby a new concept is learned (or a new hypothesis formed) based only on minimal exposure to a given unit of information (e.g., one exposure to a word in an informative context where its referent is present

Question 56

Overextension define and identify examples

Answer 56

Overextension occurs when a child uses a single word to refer to multiple objects or concepts, instead of using different words for different things. For example, a toddler may use the word "dog" to refer to all four-legged animals, including cats, pigs, and cows.

Question 57

Under extension define and identify examples

Answer 57

occurs when a child acquires a word for a particular thing and fails to extend it to other objects in the same category, using the word in a highly restricted and individualistic way.

Question 58

Telegraphic speech define and identify examples

Answer 58

speech that consists mainly of content words (i.e., articles, prepositions) and omits less critical words

Question 59

Over-regularization define and identify examples

Answer 59

a part of the language-learning process in which children extend regular grammatical patterns to irregular words, such as the use of "goed " for "went", or "tooths" for "teeth".

Question 60

What are Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?

Answer 60

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years) 2. Preoperational (2-7 years) 3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years) 4. Formal Operations (11+ years)

Question 61

Object permanence define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with

Answer 61

recognition that an object continues to exist even when it is no longer visible (0-2 years )

Question 62

Conservation define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with

Answer 62

Awareness that physical quantities remain constant (2-7 years)

Question 63

Concentration define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with

Answer 63

Ability to focus on just one feature (7-11)

Question 64

Irreversibility define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with

Answer 64

Inability to envision reversing and action Pre-operational (2-7)

Question 65

Egocentrism define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with

Answer 65

Limited ability to share another person’s point of view Pre operational (2-7)

Question 66

Animism define and know which of Piaget’s stages they are associated with

Answer 66

Belief that all things are living Pre operational (2-7)

Question 67

What does the linguistic relativity hypothesis suggest?

Answer 67

one’s language determines the nature of one’s thought.

Question 68

What does Erikson believe influences personality?

Answer 68

Outcomes of stages influence aspects of personality.

Question 69

What are Kohlberg’s three levels of moral development?

Question 70

Changes in which area of the brain are associated with risk-taking in adolescence?

Answer 70

Synaptic pruning - Elimination of unused synapses • Increased ability to learn new things • Increased risk-taking

Question 71

Imaginary audience

Answer 71

adolescents' tendency to believe that others are always watching and evaluating them

Question 72

Personal fable

Answer 72

belief that the self is special and unique, so much so that none of life's difficulties or problems will affect them regardless of their behavior

Question 73

Which of psychosocial crisis do adolescents face, according to Erikson?

Answer 73

According to Erikson, the psychosocial crisis that adolescents face is Identity vs Confusion.

Question 74

Identify and differentiate between Marcia’s four identity statuses

Answer 74

• Identity moratorium – active struggling for a sense of identity • Identity foreclosure – unquestioning adoption of parental or societal values • Identity diffusion – absence of or struggle for identity, with no obvious concern about it • Identity achievement – successful achievement of a sense of identity

Question 75

What age range do we consider to be “emerging adulthood”?

Answer 75

stage between adolescence and adulthood (18-25 years)

Question 76

What psychosocial crisis do young adults face according to Erikson?

Question 77

Does anxiety about death tend to increase or decrease with age?

Answer 77

Anxiety about death tends to be high in early adulthood, but decreases in late adulthood