Exam 2 Flashcards
(155 cards)
1
Q
RNA basics and main types
A
Ribonucleic acid Uracil not thymine In cytoplasm to make protein Executes commands from proteins MRNA TRNA RRNA
2
Q
MRNA
A
Messenger RNA
Single strand of copying DNA
3
Q
RRNA
A
Glob one in RNA
4
Q
Transfer RNA
A
Key shaped
5
Q
Gene
A
A sequence of nucleotides for specific proteins
6
Q
Genome
A
All the DNA in the 23 chromosomes
7
Q
Genetic code
A
System that makes it possible for nucleotides to code for a lot
Million proteins from 20 amino acids from 4 bases
So 61 3 base combos for amino acids, 4 stop codons
All cells have some DNA except immune and sex
8
Q
Sequence of three
A
Base triplet on DNA
Codon on mRNA
9
Q
Central Dogma
A
For protein synthesis
Transcription is DNA to mRNA
Translation is mRNA to protein
10
Q
Transcription
A
DNA uncoils
mRNA made by RNA polymerase
Happens in nucleous
11
Q
Translation
A
In cytoplasm
MRNA binds to ribosomes and starts to assemble amino acids
12
Q
DNA replication
A
DNA unzipped by DNA helicase enzyme
DNA polymerase makes new strand
DNA lygase puts it back together
Polymerase also checks for typos
13
Q
Mutations
A
When mistakes slip by in DNA replication
14
Q
Cell cycle
A
Everywhere but gametes
Interphase with G1 S and G2
Mititotic phase
G0
15
Q
Interphase
A
G1 grows
S - synthesis because it replicates DNA, Duplicates centrioles
G2 is gap between replication and division
16
Q
Mitotic phase
A
Prophase -* Condenses into chromosomes with 2 sister chromatids
* Nuclear envelope disintegrates
* Centrioles sprout spindle fibers made of microtubules which push each other apart
Metaphase- chromatids do line up in middle
Anaphase - get pulled part
Telophase - new nucleus, chromosome stuff unwind, plasma membrane furrows
17
Q
Cytokinesis
A
When cell actually seperates in division after telophase
18
Q
Timing for Cell Division
A
Growth factors are chemical signals saying got go got
Contact inhibition - stop dividing when there isn’t space
19
Q
Tissue def and 4 types
A
Group of cells in same are that are similar and work together Epithelial Connective Nervous Muscle
20
Q
Epithelial
A
For surfaces of stuff mostly
Glands
No blood vessels so nourished by connective tissues
Has polarity so basal surface is attached and facing basement membrane and apical surface facing up
Functions are to excrete, protect, sense
21
Q
Basement membrane
A
Between epithelium and connective tissue
Collagen and glycoproteins
Anchors epithelium
22
Q
Types of epithelium
A
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar
Simple, stratified, pseudo stratified
Stratified squamous is most common cuz skin but will talk more about skin later
Except for exfoliation/desquamation is when the dead ones flake off
23
Q
Connective
A
Diverse cells occupying less space than matrix
Supports connects protects
Loose with lots of blood vessels with the exception of cartilage?
24
Q
Matrix
A
Ground substance made of fibrous proteins
Has lots of names but basically extracellular fluid
25
Stroma
Supportive framework made by reticular connective tissue
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Ligaments and tendons, what kind of tissue
Dense regular
27
Adipose tissue
Adipocytes
Energy storage
Insulation
Cushion
28
Chondrocytes
In hyaline cartilage
| Basically just cartilage cells
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Compact bone
Connective tissue
| Are cylinders aroun central (haversian) canals which run longitudinally through bone
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Concentric lamallae
Onion like layers around the central canal
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Plasma
Bloods ground substance
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Formed elements
Cells and cell fragments like erythrocytes and leukocytes and platelets
33
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells
34
Leukocytes
White blood cells
35
Platelets
Cell fragments involved in clotting
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Excitability
Ability to respond to stimuli by changing membrane potential
Most advanced in nervous and muscle tissue
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Membrane potential
Electric difference across membrane
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Excitability for nerves
Changes in voltage result in rapid transmission of signals to out her neurons
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Excitability for muscles
Changes in voltage result in contraction
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Muscular tissue general
Special long muscles designed to contract
Three types
Skeletal, cardiac, smooth
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Skeletal muscles
Muscle fibers - long thin cells
Multiple nuclei
Striations - alternating dark and light bands
Voluntary - conscious control over muscles
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Cardiac muscles
Myocyctes/cardiocytes branced and shorter than skeletal
Only one nuclesou
Only in heart
Intercolated discs at points of connectgion betweeen cells in the tissue
Striated and involuntary
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Smoooth mucsle
Involuntary
| Visceral - linnig of hollow orgnas
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Nervous tissue
Consists of neurons - detect and transmit stimuli for communication
And neuroglia - protect and assist, more prevalent
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Parts on neuron
Neurosoma - cell body, protein synthesis
Dendrits are the branches recieving signals and transmitting those to the neurosoma
Axons are the fibers for sending signals
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Integumentary system
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Skin
Epidermis
Dermis
Hypodermis
Protection, thermal regulation, sense, vitamin d, exrete waste through sweat
```
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Epidermis
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
| Buy some goodies like candy
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Stratum basal
Botom layer of epidermis
| 1 layer thick with stem cells
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Stratum spinosum
Thick and migrating up, make melanin
| Have kerotinocytes
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Stratum granulosum
Flattened and dying but still prooducing keratin
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Keratohyaline
Dark granule for producing glycolipid for waterproofing
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Stratum lucidum
Only in liike the palm and stuff for places with high friction
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Stratum corneum
Thick but dead and just a protective layer
| Fully keratinized
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Keratinocytes
Produce keratin
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Melanocytes
Produce melanin
Eumelanin is the dark one for protection
Phaeomelanin is just pigment lighter
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Langherin cels
Immmune
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Merkel
Sensory
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Dermis
20x thicker than epidermis
Mostly connective
Skin appendages here
Papillary and reticular regions
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Papillary region s
Looose connective tissue
| Fingerprints
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Reticular region
Dense connective tissu e
| Provide skiin wiht strenght and elasticity
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Skin appendages
Hair, nails, glands
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Hair
Dead fully keratinized
Shaft is the visible part, its cross section determines straight vs curly
Root is surrounded by follice
Bulb initiates hair growth
Hair color - determined by ammount and type of melanin
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Alopecia
Hair loss
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Goosbumps
Arrector pili muscle straightens up the hair
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Nails
Tightly packed fully keratinized cells
Nail body is the visible part htat is pink cuz of skin below
Nail root is under the skin and has stratym basal
Eponychium is the cutivle
66
Glands
Exocrine for excreting in local area
| Endocrien for excreting into like the blood
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Exocrine glands
Sebacacious - oil or sebum coming out with hair
Sudoriferous - eccrine (normal sweat) apocrine (sweat in pubic areas)
Ceriminous - ear wax which is mod of sweat
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Endocrine glands
Just like pituitary
69
Osteology
Study of bones
70
Ligaemtns
Hold bones together at joint
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Tendons
Hold muslce to bone
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Cartilage
Pre bone
| But also covers surfaces of joints for reduced friction
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Electrolyte balance
Function of bones cuz they store calcium and phosphate
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Acid base balnacce
Act as ph guard for blood cuz they can release salt alkaline stuff
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Bloood formation
Made in bone marrow in bones
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Mineralization/calcification
When matrix is hardened by calcium phosphate
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4 types of bones
Flat
Long
Irregular
Short
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Flat bone
```
Thin and curved
For protection not relally movement
Compact spongey compact
Diploe is spongey reiong for absorbiont and marrow, not acutally soft just not compact
Like skull or sternum
```
79
Long bone
Longer than wide
Rigid levers for movement
Can be small like fingers in shit but has to be longer than wide
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Diaphysis
Main shaft of the long bone
| Has medularry cavity for bone marrow
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Epiphysis
Enlarged ends of long bones
Articular cartilage for reducing friction
Nutrient foramina are holes for blood
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Periosteum
External sheath covering long bone
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Endosteum
Thin layer of connective tissue lining marrow cavity
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Epiphyseal plate
Growth plate between the epiphysis and diaphysis with hyaline cartilage becooming bone
Epiphysial scar is the remnatns of this in adults
85
Short bones
Equal width and length
| For gliding motion llike wrists (carpal) or ankle (tarsal)
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Irregular
Weird shaped bones like vertebrae or middle ear bones
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Compact bone
Dense outer shell
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Spongey
```
Loosely organized bone tissue
Center and ends of long bones
Just middle layer of other types of bones
Lattice covered with endosteum
Thin plates called trabecular
```
89
Osteogenic stem cells
Make osteoblasts and osteocytes
90
Osteoblasts
Bone forming cells that excrete matrix
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Osteocytes
Trapped osteoblasts
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Osteoclasts
Dissolve bone
| Made in blood
93
Matrix of bone
Organic part made by osteoblasts
Inorganic is hydroxyapetite (ceramic) for strength
Collagen is polymer for flexibility
94
Rickets
Soft mishapen bones from pppooor mineral diposits
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Osteogenesis imperfecta
Result from a defect in collagen deposits
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Compact bone
Concentric lamallae around a central canal
Canal plus lamallae equals osteon
Perforating volkmann canals connect osteons
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Bone marrow
Soft tissue in marrow cavities of long bones and in holes of spongey bone
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Red marrow
Myeloid tissue
Contains homeopoietic tissue for making blood
In all bones for children but just most for adults
99
Yellow marrow
Fatty stuff that red marrow turns into when you are an adult but can change back if there is a blood defecit
100
Ossification/osteogenesis
Creation of bone
101
Intramembraneous ossification
In fetus
| Develops from fibrouos membrane and forms flat bones using osteoblasts
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Endochondrol ossification
Also in fetus
| When cartliage is made first then bone
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Zygote
The cell with omnipotent to be anything in the body
104
Growing for lenght
Elongation at epiphyseal plate until fully ossified
| So an inside out process
105
Growing for width
Deposits of bone beneath perosteum
| Outside in
106
Dwarfism
Bones stop growing from lack of hormones or because of something wrong with growth plate
107
Parathormone
Parathyroid gland
| Increases calcium in. Blood so it takes apart bone
108
Calcitonin
In thyroid gland
| Reduces calcium in blood so builds bones
109
Vitamin D
Made in skin but helps absorb calcium in small intestine
110
Osteoperosis
Mostly post menstrual white women
| Brittle bones due to poor mineral deposits and matrix problems
111
Fractures
Stress - from abnormal trauma
| Pathological - broken cuz weakened by illlness/disease
112
Axial basics
Skull, spine, sternum, ribs, hyoid
| 80 bones
113
Appendicular basics
126 bones
Upper and lower extremities
Pelvic girdle (bowl)
Pectoral girdle (shoulder blades)
114
Skull
Most complex with 22 bones sutured together and lots of caviteis
115
Paranasal cavities
```
Frontal
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Maxilllary
Lined by mucous and air filled for ressonencan and making head lightere
```
116
Sinuisitis
Infection of the sinuses
117
Foramina
Holes for letting blood in and out
118
Cranial cavity, parts and membrane
Membrane is the meninges
| Two parts: calvaria which is the cap and cranial base
119
Cranial base
Floor of the cranial cavity
Three basins-
Anterior cranial fosssa holds frontal lobe
Middle cranial fossa - holds the themporal lobe
Posterior cranial fossa - contains cerebellum
120
Frontal cranial bone
Forehead
Coronal suture in the back
Top parrt of orbital cavities
121
Supraorbital margin
Ridge of bone deep to eyebrow
122
Glabella
Smooth area above root of nose
123
Sagital suture
Between parietal bones
124
Foramen magnum
Opening for spinal cord
125
Occipital condyles
Knobs resting on C1
126
Sphenoid bone
Has greater and lesser wing
| Optic canal
127
Number of facial bones
14
128
Fontanels
Spaces between unfused cranial bones
129
Skull in infancy
Has fontanels and dont ossify till like one so can be birthed
130
Hyoid bone
U shaped bone between chin and larynx
Not actually attatched (not articulated) just susupended by styloid process
If fractured than u was strangled
131
5 vertebral groups in descending order
```
7 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 fused sacral base of spine
4 fused coccygeal
```
132
Primary curvature
C shape of baby spine after birth
| Becomes S shaped from secondary curvatures after 3
133
Scoliosis
Abnormal lateral curvature
Most common
Thoracic region
134
Kyphosis
Hunchback
Usually from osteoporosis
Or weightlifting young
135
Lordosis
Exaggerated lumbar curvature
| From pregnancy or fat
136
Condyle
Roundeed knob for articulation
137
Facet
Smooth concave or convex surface
138
Head
Prominent end of bone, sometimes rounded like for femur
139
Crest
Narrow ridge
140
Epicondyle
Expanded region superior to condyle
141
Line
Raised elongated ridge
142
Process
Any bony prominence
143
Protuberance
Bony outgrowth
144
Spine
Sharp slender process
145
Trochanter
Small rounded process
146
Tuberosity
Rough elevated surface
147
Alveolus
Pit or socket like for teeth
148
Fossa
Shallow or broad basin
149
Fovea
Small pit
150
Sulcul
A groove for a tendon
151
Canal
Tubular passage
152
Fissure
A slit through bone
153
Foramen
Hole
154
Meatus
Canal for like ear
155
Sinus
Airfilled space in bone
