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Animal Physiology (260) > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

(133 cards)

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1
Q

what does homeostasis require?

A

communication

cells and tissue must remain intergrated

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2
Q

what are the different types of signals?

A

electrical - nervous

chemical - endocrine

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3
Q

what are the four methods of cell-to-cell communication?

A
  1. gap junctions
  2. contact-dependent
  3. local communication
  4. long distant communication
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4
Q

what is gap junctions?

A

simplest of communication

has connexins

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5
Q

what are connexins?

A

allow ions to pass between cells via a channel (Conn exon)

  • creates electrical continuity between cells
  • ions, small molecules
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6
Q

what is the only way electrical signals are carried between cells?

A

connexins

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7
Q

where are gap junctions found?

A

myocardium
intestinal smooth muscle
uterine smooth muscle

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8
Q

what are contact-dependent signals?

A

require direct contact between surface molecules of 2 cells

CAM can act as receptors

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9
Q

where are contact-dependent signals found?

A

immune system
growth
development

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10
Q

what is local communication?

A

chemical reaches target via diffusion through interstitial fluid
ex: cytokines
eicosanoids

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11
Q

what are the three different types of local communication?

A

autocrine
paracrine
juxtacrine

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12
Q

what is autocrine?

A

acts on cell of origin

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13
Q

what is paracrine?

A

acts on adjacent cells

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14
Q

what is juxtacrine?

A

may act on both cell of origin and adjacent cells

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15
Q

what are some types of long distance communication?

A

endocrine

nervous

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16
Q

what is endocrine communication?

A

hormonal signaling

chemical signal carried by circulatory system

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17
Q

what is nervous communication?

A

very rapid and targeted response

electrical signal through neuron, then chemical secreted at end (neurocrine)

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18
Q

what is a ligand?

A

a molecule that binds to a receptor

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19
Q

what is a receptor?

A

a protein that binds a ligand and creates a response

may be membrane bound or floating in cytosol

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20
Q

what are all the parts of a signal pathway?

A 
signal molecule
membrane receptor protein 
intracellular signal molecule
target protein 
response
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21
Q

what are the two categories of chemical signals?

A

lipophilic

lipophobic

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22
Q

what is a lipophilic chemical signal?

A

bind to cytosolic or nuclear receptors
activation turns on gene and mRNA is made
very slow process

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23
Q

what is a lipophobic chemical signal?

A

bind to receptors on cell membrane
fast process
4 receptor types

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24
Q

what are the four different lipophobic receptor types?

A

receptor-channel
receptor-enzyme
G protein-coupled receptor
integrin receptor

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25
what is a receptor channel?
ligand binding opens or closes the channel
26
what is a receptor enzyme?
ligand binding to a receptor enzyme activates an intracellular enzyme
27
what is a G protein coupled receptor?
ligand binding to a G protein-coupled receptor opens an ion channel or alters enzyme activity
28
what is an integrin receptor?
ligand binding to integrin receptors alter the cytoskeleton
29
what is signal transduction?
transmission of information from one side of a membrane to the other using a membrane protein
30
what are the three novel signal molecules?
calcium NO CO
31
what is calcium used for?
``` most versatile ionic messenger Ca2+ binds to calmodulin bind/alter movement of microtubules trigger exocytosis alter gate state of ion channels enter fertilized eggs ```
32
what is NO used for?
- result of synthesis of arginine by NOS | - diffuses into cell, binds to gaunylyl cyclase and forms cGMP
33
what is CO used for?
similar to NO
34
what is modulation of signal pathways?
specificity and competition
35
what are the two classifications of a ligand?
agonist | antagonist
36
what is an agonist ligand?
molecule binds to a receptor and causes a response
37
what is an antagonist ligand?
molecule binds to a receptor and results in no response | "blocks"
38
what are signal pathways?
cells capable of changing the number of available receptors to modulate a response -deals with saturation of proteins and ligands
39
what is upregulation?
an increase in the number of available receptors
40
what is down regulation?
a decrease in the number of available receptors
41
what is termination of signal pathway?
removes signal molecule | breaks down receptor ligand complex via endocytosis
42
what are Cannon's postulates?
1. nervous system has role in preserving fitness of the internal environment - homeostasis 2. some systems are under tonic control - blood vessel diameter 3. some systems are under antagonistic control - insulin and glucagon 4. one chemical signal can have different effects in different tissue - epinephrine
43
what is the control system?
regulated variables have a set point and normal range
44
what is a set point?
optimum value
45
what is local control?
isolated change in vicinity of cell/tissue paracrine/autocrine response ex: O2 in tissue
46
what is reflex control?
long distance coordination of reaction outside organ of response -systemic uses nervous and/or endocrine
47
what is reflex control?
long distance coordination of reaction outside organ of response -systemic uses nervous and/or endocrine
48
what are the two parts of physiological reflex?
response loop | feedback loop
49
for reflex control, what are the two different kinds of input signals?
stimulus | sensor
50
what is stimulus?
disturbance or change sets pathway in motion ex: temperature, O2, blood pressure
51
what is a sensor?
NOT protein receptors specialized cells: central or peripheral must reach threshold: range or limit
52
what is a central sensor?
head: | eyes, ears, nose, tongue
53
what are peripheral receptors?
every thing that isn't a central sensor | ex: pressure, temp, pain, touch
54
for reflex control, what are input signals?
depends on the type of reflex - neural: sensory neuron - endocrine: no pathway
55
what is special about endocrine input signal?
there is no pathway | gland releases hormone and doesn't have to send a message
56
for reflex control, what is the integrator?
the cell that receives information about the change and is programmed to initiate a response -can have one or multiple stimuli
57
where does the endocrine reflex take place?
the endocrine cell
58
where does the neural reflex take place?
within the central nervous system
59
for reflex control, what are output signals?
efferent pathway neural vs. endocrine signal vs. route
60
for reflex control, what is a target?
cells/tissues that carry out the response | neural: muscle, glands, some adipose
61
for reflex control, what are the levels of responses?
cellular and systemic
62
what are the three different types of set points?
acclimatization acclimation biological rhythms
63
what is acclimatization?
adaptation of physiological processes to a given set of natural environmental conditions
64
what is acclimation?
adaptation of physiological processes to a given set of artificially induced conditions
65
what are biological rhythms?
regulated variables predictably change
66
what is a feedback loop?
a way to modulate the response - information about the response sent back to integrating center - can be positive or negative
67
what is a negative feedback loop?
more common the response opposes and removes the stimulus occurs in most reflexes homeostatic
68
what is a positive feedback loop?
response reinforces the stimulus not homeostatic rarely occurs in the body
69
what is endocrinology?
the study of hormones
70
what are hormones?
chemical messenger secreted into the body by specialized cells
71
what makes a chemical hormone?
``` secreted by cell glands secreted into blood transported to distant target exert effects at low concentrations (nano-pico) act by binding to receptors action must be terminated ```
72
what are the three chemical classes of hormones?
proteins/peptides - insulin, oxytocin, ACTH amines - dopamine, epinephrine steroids - cortisol, progesterone, vit D
73
how else can you classify hormones?
source how their release is controlled type of receptor they bind to
74
what is half life?
how long you have until you have half the concentration
75
what is the most common type of hormone?
peptide
76
what are steroid hormones?
``` derived from cholesterol origin: adrenal cortex, gonads, placenta made in ER released via diffusion not soluble in plasma/body fluids ```
77
what are amine hormones?
created from tryptophan or tyrosine tryptophan: melatonin tyrosine: all others similar to thyroid
78
what are catecholamines?
neurohormones | -bind the way peptide hormones do
79
what is the simple control of hormone release?
endocrine cell senses stimulus and responds by secretion | ex: PTH, insulin, glucagon
80
what is the complex control of hormone release?
add nervous system - adrenal medulla: catecholamines - hypothalamus/pituitary: lots
81
what is the function of hypothalamus and pituitary glands?
provide major endocrine control the hypothalamus receives electrical signals from the brain -causing the release of tropic hormones that will affect the pituitary gland
82
what is a tropic hormone?
acts on another target (gland) to release more hormones
83
what is the pituitary considered?
the master gland
84
what are the two distinct regions of the pituitary gland?
anterior (adenohypophysis) | posterior (neurohypophysis)
85
what does the anterior region of the pituitary gland do?
production and storage center for these 6 hormones: - follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) - luteinizing hormone (LH) - thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - somatotropin (GH) - prolactin (PRL) - Adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH)
86
what does the posterior region of the pituitary gland do?
storage center for these two hormones - oxytocin - vasopressin/ADH
87
what is glucagon?
increase in glucose
88
what is synergism hormone interaction?
the combination of 2 hormones yields a result greater than the additive ex: glucagon, epinephrine, and cortisol
89
what is permissive hormone interaction?
one hormone cannot exert effects unless a 2nd hormone is present ex: thyroid and reproductive system
90
what is antagonistic hormone interaction?
1 hormone opposes action of another | ex: insulin & glucagon
91
what is hypersecretion?
hormone present in excessive amounts ex: graves disease - thyroid hormone (TH) giantism/acromegaly - somatotropin cushings disease - ACTH, cortisol
92
what is hyposecretion?
``` deficiency of hormone ex: dwarfism - somatotropin hashimoto's disease - thyroid hormone addisons's - ACTH, cortisol diabetes mellitus - insulin ```
93
what do most clinical endocrine issues result from?
hypersecretion | hyposecretion
94
what are the two different divisions of the nervous system?
central | peripheral
95
what is the central nervous system?
brain and spinal cord | surrounded by the meninges
96
what are meninges?
layers of protective membranes that are specific the central nervous system
97
what is the peripheral nervous system?
all outlying neurons
98
what are the two types of peripheral neurons?
afferent | efferent
99
what are afferent neurons?
sensory | detect stimuli
100
what are efferent neurons?
motor | trigger responses
101
what are the two different types of cells of the nervous system?
neurons | glial cells
102
what are neurons?
``` functional unit of nervous system an excitable tissue send electrical signals throughout the body -rapid -direct -uses processes up to 1m ```
103
what are glial cells?
support cell
104
what do neurons release into the ECF?
chemical signals
105
what doe neurons rely on to send signals?
ion disequilibrium across the cell membrane
106
what is the structure of a neuron?
``` specialized structure cell body dendrites dendritic spines axon hillock axon myelin sheaths axon terminus ```
107
what does the cell body of a neuron contain?
nucleus and most organelles
108
what does the dendrites in the neuron do?
receive information | increase surface area
109
what do the dendritic spines in the neuron do?
increase surface area
110
what does the axon hillock in the neuron do?
where the axon connects | action potential starts here
111
what does the axon in the neuron do?
sends signals
112
what do the myelin sheaths in the neuron do?
helps isolate the signal
113
what does the axon terminus do?
terminates the signal | goes into the mitochondria
114
what are the two different types of axonal transport?
slow | fast
115
what is slow axonal transport?
uses cytoplasmic flow | ex: enzymes, protein
116
what is fast axonal transport?
uses microtubules | ex: vesicles, microtubules
117
what are the different structures of a neuron?
pseudounipolar bipolar anaxonic multipolar
118
what is a pseudounipolar neuron?
axon and dendrites fused together | touch and pain sensory neuron
119
what is a bipolar neuron?
only one dendrite | retinal and olfactory neuron
120
what is a anaxonic neuron?
lots of dendrites no axon amacrine cell
121
what is a multipolar neuron?
multiple neurons with and axon motor neuron pyramidal neuron purkinje cell
122
what are the different types of functions of a neuron?
sensory interneuron efferent
123
what is the sensory neuron function?
input signal carry information from sensor to CNS (temp, pressure, light) structures differ in length and organization somatic senses: psuedounipolar neurons for smell and vision: bipolar
124
what is the interneuron neuron function?
``` integrating center lies entirely within the CNS complex branching - allows easy communication with many neurons quite small structure: anaxonic or multipolar ```
125
what is the efferent neuron function?
``` output signal includes somatic motor and automatic very similar to a model neuron axon bundled with CT = nerves always multipolar ```
126
why are glial cells important?
important physical/biochem support for neurons
127
what is membrane potential?
the difference in energy across a membrane
128
what causes membrane potential?
diffusion and active transport of ionos intracellular: negative extracellular: positive total body overall is neutral
129
what is the primary ion that determines resting membrane potential?
K+ | creates disequilibrium
130
how is Na-K-ATPase implicated in membrane potentials?
K+ plus determines membrane potential | for every 2K+ 3Na+ is needed
131
what are the two factors that influence membrane potential?
1. concentration gradient of ions | 2. permeability of membrane -gated channel
132
how many ions does it take to change membrane potential?
a few
133
what changes when membrane potential changes?
permeability

Animal Physiology (260) (6 decks)

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