EXAM 2: Bioenergetics Flashcards
(225 cards)
1
Q
water has been described as ________ but overlooked
A
essential
2
Q
what is the most abundant compound on earths surface
A
water
3
Q
properties of water
A
high specific heat capacity
high heat of vaporization
high specific enthalpy of fusion
high dielectric constant
high surface tension
4
Q
value for heat of vaporization
A
40.65 KJ
5
Q
specific enthalpy of fusion value
A
333.55 Kj
6
Q
functions of water
A
solvent
transportation medium
temperature regulation
lubricant/cushion
respiration
hydrolysis
7
Q
what three things classify as temperature regulation
A
thermal conductivity
specific heat
latent heat of vaporization
8
Q
location of water in the body
A
intracellular and extracellular
9
Q
extracellular fluid
A
blood plasma
interstitial fluid
10
Q
isotonic solution
A
same salt concentration as cells and blood
11
Q
physiological saline
A
0.9% NaCl
12
Q
hypotonic solution
A
a solution that has lower osmotic pressure than another solution to which it is compared
cells swell
13
Q
hypertonic solution
A
external solution that has a high solute concentration and low water concentration compared to body fluids
cells shrink
14
Q
source of body water
A
drinking water
free water in feed
metabolic or oxidation water
15
Q
water losses
A
urine
feces
sweating
insensible
drooling of saliva
respiration
16
Q
what percent of CHO is water
A
60%
17
Q
what percent of fat is water
A
109%
18
Q
what percent of proteins is water
A
40%
19
Q
urea average of temperate animals
A
0.6%
20
Q
urea average of desert animals
A
22%
21
Q
desert animals excretes a ______ feces
A
drier
22
Q
effects of water restriction on man
A
increase concentration of blood
decrease volume and difficulty in blood circulation
increase heart rate and rectal temp
increase respiration
tingling and numbness in feet and fingers
23
Q
effects of water restriction on rats
A
decrease feed intake
decrease gain
decrease feed efficiency
decrease urine volume
decrease body weight
decrease activity
24
Q
mammals need water at the rate of __________ the weight of feed consumed
A
2-3 times
25
lactation needs ______ the weight of milk produced
4-5 times
26
retention of 1 gram of protein or glycogen require how much water
3g H2O
27
Retention of 1g of fat requires how much water
0.1g H2O
28
are lipids organic or inorganic
organic
29
a class of compound soluble in organic solvents such as acetone, ether, and chloroform
fats/lipids
30
characteristics about fats
vary in size and polarity
hydrophobic
require specialized processing during digestion, absorption, transport, storage, and utilization
31
most prominent fatty acid
triglycerides
32
carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic tail (chain) which could be saturated or unsaturated
Fatty acids
33
what are fatty acids derived from
triglycerides and phospholipids
34
fatty acids serve as am important source of _____
fuel
35
saturated fatty acids
fatty acid with NO double bond
36
unsaturated fatty acids
fatty acid with one or more double bonds
37
two types of unsaturated fatty acids
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated
38
monounsaturated
fatty acid with ONLY ONE double bond
39
polyunsaturated
fatty acid with 2 or more double bonds
40
esters of fatty acids with glycerol
simple lipids
also known as triglycerides
41
contain fatty acid, nitrogenous base, plus glycerol or sphingosine
phospholipids
42
phospholipid containing the vitamin choline as its nitrogenous base
lechithin
43
substances derived from other lipids by hydrolysis
derived lipids
44
most important derived lipids
free fatty acids
45
other lipids include
waxes and steroids
46
esters of long chain fatty acid and high molecular weight alcohols
waxes
47
steroids
cholesterol
hormones
carotenoids
plant pigments
vitamin D precursors
48
fatty acids have two ends which are
the carboxylic acid (-COOH) end
the methyl (CH3) end
49
the carboxylic acid (-COOH) end is the head or the tail
head; beginning
50
the methyl (CH3) end is the head or the tail
tail
51
how are fatty acids names
using the position of the first double bond when counted from the methyl or the n-end
52
majority of fat in animals is
triglycerides
53
the longer the fatty acid, the _________ the melting point
higher
54
the more double bonds present, what happens to melting point
decreases
55
Are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic
hydrophobic
56
why do we need bile
Emulsify fat because lipids do not interact with water
57
fat yields about how much of its weight in fatty acids and glycerol
90% fatty acid
10% glycerol
58
glycerol yields ________ when oxidized
4.3 kcal/g
59
fatty acids yield _______ when oxidized
9.4 kcal/g
60
The predominant fatty acids in fats ingesting by animals are
palmitic
stearic
oleic
linoleic
61
how does the melting point of coconut oil vs corn oil
corn: less than 20
coconut: 20-35
62
are unsaturated fats or saturated fats better for you
unsaturated
63
What happens to double bonds when iodine increases
the number of double bonds increase
64
ruminant fat has a higher proportion of ____________ than pork
saturated fatty acids
65
chicken fat is the most __________ of the animals fats
unsaturated
66
Which animal is the most saturated and the less saturated
beef is the most
fish is the least
67
melting point
useful measure of the hardness of a fat
68
oils
liquid at room temperature
examples: corn and soybean oil
69
fats
solid at room temperature
examples: lard and tallow
70
the more unsaturated, what happens to boiling point
decreases
71
unsaturated fat adds two atoms of iodine at each double bond
iodine number
72
the more unsaturated, what happens to the iodine number
increases
73
number of mg of an alkali as NaOH or KOH required to saponify 1g of fat (indicator of the length of FA chains)
saponification number
74
when fat is boiled with alkali such as NaOH it is split into
glycerol and alkali salt of FA
75
shorter the fatty acid chain, what happens to the saponification number
increases
76
how many carbons is classified as a long FA
more than 12
77
how many carbons is classified as a short FA
less than 12
78
Mg of KOH to neutralize free fatty acid in1 gram of fat
measures the hydrolytic rancidity
acid value
79
acid value increases with ________
rancidity
80
measures the water-soluble, steam volatile fatty acids present
useful for detecting adulterations in butterfat
reichert-meissel number
81
fatty acids of 12 carbons or less are volatile in _______
steam
82
fatty acids with 6 carbons or less are appreciably soluble in ______
water
83
fats can add __________ at the double bonds
oxygen
84
Highly unsaturated acids like linseed oil are ready _______ and this reaction produces a _________
oxidized
harder fat
85
double bonds can add _____ but not as readily as oxygen. this produces a ________ out of a soft unsaturated fat
H2
hard saturated fat
86
double bonds are susceptible to oxidation by _______
free radicals
87
essential fatty acids
linoleic
linolenic
arachidonic
88
essential fatty acids deficiency symptoms
scaly skin
necrosis of tail
growth failure, reproduction and lactation affected
death
89
Can essential fatty acids be synthesized by the body?
no
90
without essential fatty acids get cell deterioration which leads to
cell death
91
early work by _______________ showed that rats on a diet practically devoided of fat developed __________
Burr and Burr
EFA deficiency symptoms
92
arachidonic may be synthesized from the key EFA _________
linoleic acid
93
in ruminants, where triglycerides are hydrolyzed
rumen
94
glycerol is fermented by _______ into ____ acid
microbes; propionic
95
in nonruminants, the sole site of fat hydrolysis occurs where
small intestine
96
fat enters the _______ and is emulsified via bile salts
duodenum
97
the three volatile fatty acids
acetic acid
butyric acid
propionic acid
98
what are volatile fatty acids used for
to make ATP
99
Glycerol gets converted into
butyric acid
100
salts in bile
cholic acid
deoxycholic acid
chenodeoxycholic acid
lithocholic
101
Which of the four bile salts are most important/common
cholic acid
chenodeoxycholic acid
102
fat is ______ digestible
highly
103
Digestibility is influenced by
length of carbon chain
state of saturation
104
Longer chains over 18 C does what to digestibility
decreases
105
more saturation does what to digestibility
decreases
106
Hydrolysis occurs only at
the interface between the lipid droplet and aqueous phase
107
the larger the interface the more
fat is emulsified
108
bile salts promote _______
emulsification
109
Longer than 12 carbons go to what system
lyphatic
110
Shorter than 12 carbons may enter the __________ directly
portal circulation
111
glycerol is ______ soluble
water
112
Monoglycerides and insoluble FA are emulsified to form a submicroscopic complex called ________
micelle
113
micelle is absorbed by what cells
epithelial that line the mucosa of the intestinal tract
114
While still in mucosal cells, the longer chained fatty acids and monoglycerides are converted back into ________
triglycerides
115
Chylomicrons give blood a milky appearance called
lipemia
116
Chylomicrons are absorbed into what system via thoracic duct
lymphatic
117
What long chained FA and monoglycerides are converted to when surrounded by lipoprotein
chylomicrons
118
lipid in the body is stored mainly in the ________ form
triglyceride
119
most storage of lipids occurs in what tissue
adipose
120
lipid deposited in the adipose tissue can be two sources
dietary
synthesized by the animal
121
Any substance capable of forming acetyl CoA is a potential source of
carbon atoms for the process of FA synthesis (lipogenesis)
122
types of fat
white
brown
123
glycerol by itself is metabolized as a
CHO
124
catabolism of fatty acids
enters glycolytic pathway via alpha glycerol phosphate
catabolized to pyruvate
condenses with CoASH to form acetyl CoA
enters citric acid cycle for complete oxidation
125
during complete catabolism of glycerol,how many ATP are formed
22
126
ketosis body chemical situation
high blood ketones
high urine ketones (spill out of blood)
low blood glucose
depleted glycogen reserves
127
what group of animal is ketosis common in
ruminants
128
biochemical cause of ketosis
don't have a good source of glucose causing us to use lipids
129
in ruminants, ketosis or acetonemia is a pregnancy disease in _________
dairy cows
sheep
130
Ketosis occurs shortly after calving or lambing due to
high nutrient demand in late gestation
stress of birth
nutrient demand in lactation
possible hormonal changes
131
symptoms of ketosis in ruminants
decreased feed intake
decreased milk production
cant stand (glucose deficient in brain--coma and death)
132
is there a cure for ketosis
not known
133
ketosis prevention
Feed extra energy late in gestation
134
Lipids (micelles) absorption occurs via
passive diffusion
135
why doesn't feeding glucose to ruminants work
it's converted to VFA's then to acetate
136
large part of ATP in nonruminants come from
glucose
137
large part of ATP in ruminants come from
VFA
138
measure of energy values of food and feedstuffs for animals
direct energy measurements
indirect energy measurements
139
TDN stands for
total digestable nutrients
140
examples of direct energy measurements
digestbile energy
metabolizable energy
net energy
141
example of indirect energy estimates
TDN
142
order of energy distribution in the body
gross energy
digestible energy
metabolizable energy
net energy (m/p)
net energy production
143
between gross energy and digestable energy, what is lost
fecal energy
144
Between digestible energy and metabolizable energy what is lost
urinary and gas
145
between metabolizable energy and net energy(m/p) what is lost
heat increment
146
between net energy and net energy production what is lost
energy for maintence
147
the total amount of heat that is released when a substance is completely oxidized in a bomb calorimeter containing 25-30 atmospheres of o2
measured in calories
gross energy
148
digestible energy
attempts to measure gross metabolic functions
149
Fecal energy reflects
undigested food
bacteria cell residue
metabolic energy from endogenous sources
150
digestible energy equation
DE=GE-Fecal Energy
151
Energy loss as gaseous product digestion results primarily from
microbial metabolism in the rumen
152
metabolizable energy
provides a more satisfactory measure of nutritive value than TDN or DE
153
poultry metabolizable energy is more easily determined than DE because
feces and urine are excreted as one product
154
metabolizable energy equation
ME=GE-(Fecal energy +UE+GPD)
155
ruminant gaseous losses are _______ than urinary
greater
156
gaseous losses of energy are greater on
roughages
157
urinary energy losses in pigs and cattle
2-3% pig
4-6% cow
158
in ruminants, an average figure is around _______ of the total energy intake
8%
159
low quality forages yield a _________ percentage loss of energy as methane
greater
160
portion available for sustenance of life and productive purposes-tissue, maintenance and growth, milk, eggs, wool, and work
net energy
161
The continual outgo of heat from the body, which is minimum in the postabsorptive state in a thermoneutral environment and increases the amount of food consumed
heat increment
162
two parts of heat increment
heat of fermentation
heat of nutrient metabolism
163
produced in the GI tract as a result of microbial action
much larger in ruminants than nonruminants
cannot be determined directly
heat of fermentation
164
heat above the basal metabolism that occurs in the utilization of the absorbed nutrients
heat of nutrtient metabolism
165
factors affecting heat increment
kind of food fed
balance of diet
effect of temperature on HI
166
what class of nutrients has the lowest GE and which has the highest
lowest= carbs
highest= protein
167
why does heat increment reduce at low temps
at below or lower critical temperature HI is reduced because of its use for the maintenance of body temp
168
by shifting acetic to ________ should increase efficiency
propinoic
b/c lowest heat lost
169
fraction of net energy expended to keep the animal in energy equilibrium
animals tissues aren't gaining or losing
the net energy of maintenance
170
What is net energy composed of
basal metabolism
voluntary activity
heat to warm body or cool the body
171
basal metabolism
the function of body size
energy expended by animals under basal conditions
172
Energy expended by the animal under basal conditions include
thermoneutral environment
resting conditions
post-absorptive state
sexual repose
consciousness
173
basal metabolism is used for
circulation
respiration
kidney function
general musculature (highest percentage)
174
amount of energy needed to replace the energy expended in getting up, moving about to obtain food, grazing, drinking, laying down
voluntary activity
175
The extra heat needed to keep the animal's body warm when the environment is below the critical temperature
energy to keep the body cool, extra energy expended by the animal when the environmental temperature is above the zone of thermal neutrality
thermal regulation
176
net energy for production
net energy required for involuntary work or for tissue gain, or production of milk, eggs, wool etc
177
homeotherms
an animal that must keep body temp pretty constant to maintain life processes
178
critical temperature
point at which a homeotherm must initiate additional reactions to maintain normal body temperature
179
zone of therm neutrality (TNZ)
range where the supporting functions of the body are generating enough heat to maintain body temperature, but not enough to cause stress in the animal
180
the first law of thermodynamics
law of conservation of energy
"the total energy of a system and its surroundings remain constant. Can change form but cant be created or destroyed"
181
in animal metabolism we are concerned with the utilization of
chemical energy
182
oxidation
loss of electrons
183
reduction
gain of electrons
184
what mineral is used in energy trapping
phosphorus
185
two types of bonds of phosphorus
low energy (3kcal)
high energy (7.3kcal)
186
the compounds in the body that traps energy and later releases it when needed is one that has high energy phosphate bonds called
ATP
187
in the muscles there is very little_____ but there is a liable source of ____________ used to replenish ATP used
ATP
high energy phosphate
188
start with one compound and metabolize it to a second compound, the net change in energy will be the same no matter how many steps
law of hess
189
the step by step process in the metabolism insures the capture of __________% of energy in the useful form of ______the rest in lost in
40-60%
ATP
heat
190
byproduct of metabolism and is beneficial to the animal in maintain body temperature
heat
191
the overall ability of the animal body to convert potential energy of food to mechanical work amounts to only _________ percent of its total available energy
20-25
192
Involves what occurs to nutrients within the cell
intermediary metabolism of CHO
193
main three steps glucose must go through to make 38 ATP
glycolysis
TCA cycle
Electron transport chain/oxidation
194
glycolysis
anaerobic (absence of oxygen)
occurs in cytoplasm
more primitive type of metabolism to generate energy; typical of that of microbes
converts 2 glucose into two pyruvate
195
used in the synthesis of ATP, NAD, FAD, RNA,DNA and others
ribose
196
important in biosynthetic reactions
NADPH
197
important in generating ATP in electron transport
NADH
198
the flow of glucose through glycolysis is regulated by the need for
NADPH and ribose
199
TCA cycle
aerobic (presence of oxygen)
occurs in mitochondria
more advanced system typical of higher-order organisms
200
ATP is formed as electrons are transferred from NADH + H+ or FADH2 to O2 by a series of electron carriers called cytochrome
located on the inner membrane of mitochondria
electron transport chain
(process called oxidation phosphorylation)
201
Having a series of cytochromes generates
more than one ATP
202
e- of H last from intermediate
the energy liberated and trapped as ATP
oxidation taking place
203
kinase
consumption or release of phosphorus (ATP)
204
where is glucokinase found
only in liver
205
where is hexokinase found
in all cells (muscle)
206
isomerase
rearrangment of structure within the same compound
207
what coenzyme do kinase require
Mg2+
208
about how much ATP is formed in TCA cycle
24 ATP
(~2/3)
209
Intermediates in TCA are important in the synthesis of
nonessential amino acids
210
the major source of energy for the ruminant
part of the energy source of the horse
metabolism of VFA's
211
the primary VFA
metabolized by muscle and adipose tissue
enters kreb cycle via acetyl CoA
Acetate
212
the secondary VFA
metabolized by liver
enters kreb cycle via succinyl CoA
only VFA which can yield blood glucose
propinoate
213
least important VFA
metabolized by the rumen epithelium and liver
butyrate
214
the major pathway of respiration in aerobic organisms
citric acid cycle
215
bioenergetic constant: Phosphate bond
7.3 kcal/mole
216
bioenergetic constant: e- (&H) carried on FAD
yields 2 ATP
217
bioenergetic constant:e- (&H) carried on NAD
yields 3 ATP
218
bioenergetic constant:One “turn” of the TCA cycle
yields 12 ATP
219
bioenergetic constant:One “clipping” of acetyl CoA from FA
yields 5 ATP
220
blood chemical situation of ketosis
1. High blood ketones
2. High urine ketones - spill out of blood →urine
3. Low blood glucose
4. Depleted glycogen reserves
221
Intermediates provide means whereby amino acids for protein can be
oxidized
used to form GLU for other tissues like the brain
glucogenesis
222
glucogenesis
glucose from non CHO (primarily protein) occurs in the liver via reverse glycolysis
223
summary of output from TCA cycle
3 NADH (18 ATP)
1 FADH (4 ATP)
1 GTP (2 ATP)
2 CO2 (4CO2)
224
how many ATP is produced by glycolysis
4 ATP
net: 2 ATP
225
net production of ATP in the ruminant
acetate: 10 ATP
propionate: 18 ATP
butyrate: 25 ATP
