Exam 2: chapters 6, 7, & 8 Flashcards

Question

ZONES OF EPIPHYSEAL PLATE

Answer 1

? (read from textbook)

Answer 2

The formation of bone is dependant upon mitosis and differentiation of stem cells. Any metabolic disorder that effects overall health will effect rate of mitosis and therefore have serious effects on skeletal growth. VITAMIN D is important for absorption of CALCIUM from the digestive system. An acceptable calcium level is important in the diet. VITAMIN C is also important in collagen synthesis. Vitamin D -- \> Ca Absorption --\> Bone Lack of calcium, protein and other nutrients during growth and development can cause bones to be small **Vitamin D** is: • Necessary for absorption of calcium from intestines • Can be eaten or manufactured in the body • Rickets: lack of vitamin D during childhood • Osteomalacia: lack of vitamin D during adulthood leading to softening of bones **Vitamin C** is • Necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblasts • Scurvy: deficiency of vitamin C • Lack of vitamin C also causes wounds not to heal, teeth to fall out, frequent tendency of getting sick with flu

Answer 3

\* Growth hormone (somatotropin)from anterior pituitary. Stimulates Endochondral cartilage growth (cartilage--\> bone) and appositional bone growth (thick) \* Chronic hyposecretion leads to Dwarfism \* Chronic hypersecretion leads to Giantism (child)or acromegaly (adult) \* Thyroid hormone required for growth of all tissues specially cartilage formation \* Parathyroid hormone- increase osteoclastic activity& increased Ca levels in bld. \* Calcitonin hormone(thyroid)- decrease osteoclastic activity & decreased Ca levels in bld (increases osteoblastic activity). It is stimulated to be released by high levels of calcium in the blood. The levels of calcium must remain within homeostatic levels, or difficulties begin. EX. Too high a blood calcium level may lead to heart problems, while too low a blood calcium level may lead to problems with nervous system. Calcium is also important in blood clotting. \*\***CALCITONIN** and **PTH** are antagonistic hormones, and together will regulate the balance of calcium between the bone and the blood. SEX HORMONES (Estrogen and Progesterone) are also important in bone growth. Estrogens (female sex hormones) and testosterones (male sex hormones)initially stimulate bone growth. When there is an increase in these hormone levels around puberty, a growth spurt will follow. However, these hormones that initially stimulate growth are also responsible for closure of the epiphyseal plates and therefore are responsible for stopping growth. It has been hypothesized that estrogens cause a quicker closure and that is why females tend to be shorter than males.

Answer 4

– Size (height)and shape of a bone

Answer 5

Bone is a living tissue that can be repaired after damage is done to it.

Answer 6

a localized mass of blood released from blood vessels but confined within an organ or space. When a fracture occurs, the blood vessels in the area are broken, blood rushes into the injured area and a clot forms 6-8 hours after injury. Due to injury osteocytes around the damaged site die due to a disruption of the blood and therefore of oxygen. Inflammation occurs, bringing phagocytic cells and osteoclasts into the area to clean up the dead and dying bone cells.

Answer 7

mass of tissue that forms at the fracture site and attempts to connect the broken ends of the bones. This connective tissue will be invaded by chondroblasts from the periosteum and endosteum of the broken bone. Cartilage is formed and chondoblasts become chondrocytes. **– Internal**- blood vessels grow into clot in hematoma. • Macrophages clean up debris, break down dead tissue, fibroblasts produce collagen and granulation tissue. • Chondroblasts from osteochondral progenitor cells of periosteum and endosteum produce cartilage. • Osteoblasts invade. New bone is formed. **– External**- collar around opposing ends.This . Bone/cartilage collar stabilizes two pieces of the broken bone.

Answer 8

Similar to fetal development, the chondrocytes will evetually be replaced by osteoblasts and new bone will be formed. Thus Callus is replaced by cancellous bone.

Answer 9

The final phase of fracture repair is REMODELING of the bony callus by osteoblasts and osteoclasts.Repair may be so complete that no evidence of a break remains. However, the repaired area may remain slightly thicker. In bone remodeling there is replacement of cancellous bone and the damaged material by the compact bone. Sculpting of site is done by the osteoclasts (In order for this fracture repair to occur, the 2 portions of the broken bone must be located very near to each other and held stationery. If this is not possible, another material must be used to join the bone – living bone from another site, dead bone from a cadaver (bone graft). Or a type of coral which resembles cancellous bone.)

Answer 10

Bone can become stronger in response to mechanical stress, even walking. When a person is immobile, the bone will decrease in strength and size. This is also seen when a limb is immobilized by a cast and when an astronaut is in space where there is no gravity .

Answer 11

With age there is a decrease in bone mass. This is due to, in women, a decrease in estrogen with menopause, which leads to a decrease in calcium deposits in matrix thus the bone matrix decreases. Also seen in men, but not until age 60, due to decrease in testosterone. With age, there is also an overall decrease in protein synthesis. For bone, this means a decrease in the amount of collagen made (but also less hydroxyapetite) and therefore a decrease in bone flexibility. There is an increase in bone fractures and the chance of bone fractures, especially hip fractures will increase with age. These fractures take a longer time to repair. Bone loss may also causes deformities like stiffness, pain and loss of height which may lead to stooped posture and loss of teeth as we age. \*\*Bone mass is highest around age 30. Men have denser bones due to testosterone and their bones are heavier than females. African Americans and Hispanics have higher bone masses than Caucasians and Asians. \*\*Rate of bone loss increases 10 fold after menopause. Cancellous bone is lost first ie before the compact bone.

Answer 12

porous bones. Characterized by decrease bone mass. More likely to fracture. In this condition, bone reabsorption occurs faster than bone formation. Effects middle age and older people, primarily women. Osteoporosis is also seen in young people whose caloric intake is inadequate, those with eating disorders and those with low fat content (ballet dancers). First sign of osteoporosis may be a PATHOLOGICAL( SPONTANEOUS) FRACTURE, where the bone becomes so thin that it cannot take the stress of everyday life.

Answer 13

• Cause is deficiency of Vit D, Ca+ or Phosphate • Vit D is imp. for Ca+ absorption & bone mineralization • Rickets in children and Osteomalacia in adults • The symptoms include – painful bone connditions seen in ribs, hips and legs.. – Unexpected bone fractures occur. – In children, retardation of growth, swelling and pain at the ends of bones & bowing of the legs is seen.

Answer 14

• Caused by deficiency of Vit C • This leads to decreased collagen formation • Symptoms: – tiredness,weakness,aches, poor healing, bleeding symptoms and bruising, Swollen and bleeding gums, weak bones with fractures

Answer 15

• Provides framework • Provides levers upon which muscles act to move the body • Protection of organs • Mineral storage • Hemopoiesis • Energy storage • Components – Bones – Cartilage – Ligaments – Tendons

Answer 16

– Body: main part – Head: enlarged end – Neck: constriction between head and body – Margin or border: edge – Angle: bend – Ramus: branch off of body – Condyle: smooth rounded articular surface – Facet: small flattened articular surface

Answer 17

– Process: prominent projection – Tubercle: small rounded bump – Tuberosity: knob – Trochanter: tuberosities on proximal femur – Epicondyle: near or above condyle

Answer 18

– Line or linea: low ridge – Crest or crista: prominent ridge – Spine: very high ridge

Answer 19

– Foramen: hole – Canal or meatus: tunnel – Fissure: cleft – Sinus or labyrinth: cavity

Answer 20

– Fossa: general term for a depression – Notch: depression in bone margin – Fovea: little pit – Groove or sulcus: deeper, narrow depression

Answer 21

The bones can be classified according to shape. Long bones, short bones( tarsals and carpals), flat bones (cranial bones), irregular bones ( vertebrae ), Wormian bones (skull) and sesamoid bones = small bones embedded in tendons (patella).

Answer 22

The adult human skeleton consists of approximately 206 bones divided into 2 subdivisions; the AXIAL SKELETON and the APPENDICULAR SKELETON. At birth, the human has approximately 270 bones. Some of these bones will ossify together with time, resulting in a smaller number in the adult, approximately 206. **• Axial skeleton** – Skull – Hyoid bone – Vertebral column – Thoracic (rib) cage – Sternum **• Appendicular skeleton** – Limbs • Upper(humerus, radius, ulna,carpals, metacarpals and phalanges); pectoral girdle (clavicle+scapula) • Lower(femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges) ; Pelvic girdle (os coxae) – Girdles • Pectoral (Clavicle , Scapula, Acromioclavicular Joint) • Pelvic (Os Coxae, Anterior Symphysis Pubis) At birth, the human has approximately 270 bones.

Answer 23

The skull of a newborn consists of fibrous connective tissue areas that have not yet ossified. These soft spots are called FONTANELS and enable the fetal skull to modify it size and shape during a vaginal delivery, and to adjust to the increase in the size of the brain. The ANTERIOR FONTANEL is the largest and finishes ossifying at 2 years of age. A SINUS is an opening within a bone that is lined with mucous membrane. The bones around the nasal cavity have large sinuses within them called the PARANASAL SINUSES. These empty areas will decrease the weight of the skull and act as a resonating chamber for the voice. There are sinuses in the frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal and sphenoidal bones.

Answer 24

usually the palatine processes of the maxillary bones unite during 10 - 12 weeks gestation. If this does not happen, a CLEFT PALATE can occur. This is a condition in which there is an opening between the oral and nasal cavity. Treatment is surgery and surgical results are excellent. Cleft Lip: • Maxillae do not form normally • Frontonasal process (midline structure) and one or both maxillary process (on both sides of frontonasal process) fail to fuse. • Cleft Lip never in midline but to left or right side • Can be complete or incomplete • Can be unilateral or bilateral • Can occur in combination with cleft palate • Gap in upper lip that extends to the nose (base) • Treatment is surgery

Answer 25

U shaped bone, unique because it does not articulate with other bones.It is found between the mandible and the larynx and provides attachment for muscles of the tongue.

Answer 26

VERTEBRAL COLUMN: composed of 26 bones, distributed in 5 regions: 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, the sacrum (5 FUSED vertebrae) and coccyx (4 FUSED vertebrae). INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS: These are present in between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae. These structures are composed of fibrocartilage and are shock absorbers.

Answer 27

rupture of a portion of the disc so that it is dislocated and leans on spinal nerves. Can be very painful.

Answer 28

There are 4 NORMAL CURVATURES of the spinal column: The infant is born with the THORACIC and SACRAL curvatures. As the child lifts his head, the CERVICAL CURVATURE develops. As the child becomes BIPEDAL, the LUMBAR CURVATURE develops ABNORMAL CURVATURE OF THE SPINE: SCOLIOSIS: lateral (side to side)bend of the vertebral column, usually in the thoracic region. KYPHOSIS: exaggeration of the thoracic curvature. Also known as hunchback. LORDOSIS: exaggeration of lumbar curvature. Seen in pregnancy and also known as swayback.

Answer 29

• Functions – Protects vital organs – Forms semi-rigid chamber for respiration • Parts – Thoracic vertebrae – Ribs (12 pair) • **True or Vertebrosternal: superior seven.** Attach directly to sternum via costal cartilages • **False: inferior five** – **Vertebrochondral** (3) ie 8-10 ribs are joined by common cartilage to sternum – **Floating or vertebral** (2) ie 11-12 ribs do not attach to sternum

Answer 30

• Manubrium – Articulates with first rib and clavicle – Jugular notch superiorly – Sternal angle: point where manubrium joins body. Second rib articulates here • Body / Gladiolus: third through seventh ribs articulate here. • Xiphisternum: bottom tip

Answer 31

2 girdles exist to suspend the arms and legs.

Answer 32

consists of the clavicle and the scapula, joined at the ACROMIOCLAVICULAR JOINT. This is the most superior girdle that supports the arms.

Answer 33

formed by the anterior PUBIC SYMPHYSIS (joint), joining the 2 OS COXAE. The pubic symphysis is held together by FIBROCARTILAGE

Answer 34

• Dislocation between a rib and its costal cartilage • Rib moves around and causes pain • This condition seen often in 10th rib \*\* Angle is the weakest part of the rib \*\* accessory ribs may be seen in vertebrae C7 and L1 due to elongation of the transverse processes

Answer 35

• Occur due to typing • Symptoms tingling, burning, numbness in hand • Cause – bones and ligaments forming wall of the carpal tunnel don’t stretch – Repetitive tasks (typing)lead to edema(fluid buildup in surrounding area) – Pressure on nerves and vessels passing through the tunnel leading to symptoms of Carpal Tunnel

Answer 36

"a congenital defect of the spine in which part of the spinal cord and its meninges are exposed through a gap in the backbone. It often causes paralysis of the lower limbs, and sometimes mental handicap."

Answer 37

Muscles pull on bones to make them move, but movement would not be possible without articulations (joints) between the bones. ARTICULATION: place where 2 bones come together. Some of these articulations are movable but some are not. – Types • Moveable articulations • Immovable articulations

Answer 38

• Structural: based on major connective tissue type that binds bones together – **Fibrous** – **Cartilaginous** – **Synovial** • Functional: based on degree of motion – **Synarthrosis:** non-movable – **Amphiarthrosis:** slightly movable – **Diarthrosis**: freely movable

Answer 39

consisit of 2 bones that are united by FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE. They have little or no movement do not have a joint cavity. Types of Fobrous Joints: a. sutures – immovable joints found in skull b. gomphoses –immovable, a peg shaped structure fits into sockets and is held in place by connective tissue – the teeth. c. syndesmoses- bones farther apart than sutures and joined by ligaments with some movements ex inerosseous ligament/membrane.

Answer 40

Two bones are united by hyaline or fibrous cartilage. a. symphysis: a slightly movable joint where fibrocartilage unites the 2 bones – the pubic symphysis. b. synchondrosis - connecting material is hyaline cartilage. Epiphyseal plates of long bones are temporary joints. Permanent synchodrosis joints = between ribs and sternum 2A) CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS – SYMPHYSIS: • Fibrocartilage uniting two bones • Slightly movable • Examples: symphysis pubis, between the manubrium sternum and the body of the sternum, intervertebral disks. 2B) CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS – SYNCHONDROSES: • Joined by hyaline cartilage • Little or no movement • Some are temporary EX: Epipyseal plates of long bones • Some are permanent EX: between ribs and sternum

Answer 41

GENERAL STRUCTURE of SYNOVIAL JOINTS • 2 bones • Joint cavity: synovial; encloses articular surfaces • Articular cartilage: hyaline; covers articular surfaces • Capsule-holds bones together. Parts of the capsule are – Fibrous capsule:connective tissue continuous with the periosteum. Portions may thicken to form ligaments. – Ligament: Hold bone to bone – Synovial membrane : membrane lines inside of joint capsule except at articular surfaces. Thin, delicate. Secretes fluid called the synovial fluid. – Synovial Fluid:Decrease joint friction. It has appearance of raw eggs. Complex mixture of polysaccharides, proteins, fat and phagocytic cells (to remove debris from the area). Hyaluronic acidslippery. Provides nourishment to avascular cartilage. Thick in consistency when no movement and thin when joint moves . Nerves in capsule help brain know position of joints (proprioception) \*\* stress of the joint leads to increase synovial fluid production and edema (water on the knee). This may need to be removed Other structures of the synovial joints: • Bursae – Pockets/sac of synovial membrane and fluid – Present between skin and bone. – Found in areas of friction – Pathology: Bursitis • Ligaments (bone to bone) and tendons (muscle to bone): for stabilization • Articular discs:EX temperomandibular, sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular • Menisci: fibrocartilaginous pads in the knee. • Tendon sheaths: synovial sacs that surround tendons as they pass near or over bone to protect tendons MOVEMENTS AT SYNOVIAL JOINTS: • Monoaxial: occurring around one axis • Biaxial: occurring around two axes at right angles to each other • Multiaxial: occurring around several axes

Answer 42

1. • Plane (aka: Gliding) joints 2. • Saddle joints 3. • Hinge joints– uniaxial joints 4. • Pivot joints– uniaxial 5. • Ball-and-Socket joints 6. • Ellipsoid (aka: Condyloid) joints

Answer 43

• Monoaxial • two opposed flat surfaces of about equal size – a slight amount of gliding motion can occur between the bones. – Ex: articular processes between vertebrae.

Answer 44

• two saddle-shaped articulating surfaces oriented at right angels to each other so that complementary surfaces articulate with each other. • Ex: carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.

Answer 45

• monoaxial joints • consisting of a convex cylinder in one bone applied to a corresponding concavity in the other bone. • Ex: elbow and knee joints.

Answer 46

• Monoaxial ; • restrict movement to rotation around a single axis. • Ex: articulation between the head of the radius and the proximal end of the ulna; articulation between the dens of the axis and the atlas.

Answer 47

• Multiaxial • consist of a ball at the end of one bone and a socket in an adjacent bone into which a portion of the ball fits. • Ex: shoulder and hip joint.

Answer 48

• Biaxial • modified ball-and-socket joints • articular surfaces are ellipsoid in shape rather than spherical. • Ex: atlantooccipital joint

Answer 49

ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION: upward and downward movement of body part. EX: Mandible and shrugging of shoulders. PROTRACTION AND RETRACTION: forward and backward movement of a body part, parallel to the ground. Mandible INVERSION AND EVERSION: movement of sole of foot inwards and outwards DORSIFLEXION AND PLANTER FLEXION: bending the foot towards the body and pointing it away from the body. SUPINATION AND PRONATION: movement of forearm so palm faces forward ( anatomical position) or posteriorly. ABDUCTION AND ADDUCTION: movement away from the midline or towards the midline FLEXION AND EXTENSION: decrease or increase the angle between 2 bones CIRCULAR MOVEMENTS: (see individual flashcard)

Answer 50

**Rotation** • Turning on a long axis **Circumduction** • Combination of movements Ex: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction • at the appendages **Excursion** • 2 types – Lateral: moving mandible to the right or left of midline – Medial: return the mandible to the midline **Opposition:** • movement of thumb and little finger toward each other **Reposition:** • return of thumb and little finger to their anatomical position

Answer 51

• Inflammation of joints (any joints) • More than 100 different types • Classified based on cause & progress of the disorder • More info (if interested) @ www.arthritis.org or http://www.niams.nih.gov/index.htm • 3 types of arthritis

Answer 52

It is the 2nd most common type of arthritis and there may exist a genetic disposition. It is An autoimmune disease where the body attacks CARTILAGE and SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES of joints. There will be inflammation of the joint, swelling, pain. If this type of arthritis is not treated, the synovial membranes become thicker and produce more fluid ( water on the knee). There may also be abnormal growth of tissue formed by the inflamed synovial membrane = PANNUS. This pannus may grow large enough to distort the joints. Destruction of the cartilage leading to the bones within the joint ossifying together.

Answer 53

The 1st most common type of arthritis. This is a degenerative joint disease which and its onset is usually associated with aging. 85% of those affected are over the age of 70. The cause for this disease id slowed down metabolic rates. There is deterioration of the articular cartilage with no synovial membrane involvement. This disease tends to occur in weight-bearing joints (ex knees), and in overweight individuals. There is inflammation ( a secondary manifestation), pain and decrease in the use of the joint.

Answer 54

A very painful disease that makes up about 5% of the arthritis cases. This is a metabolic disease that involves joints. Uric acid is a waste product produced by the cells, and much of it will be excreted through urine When a person has gout, they will be producing too much uric acid - more than can be excreted. The uric acid will build up in the blood and some will form needle-like crystals of uric acid in the joint spaces between the bones, causing pain and decrease in motion. Bones can also fuse because the crystals will wear away at the cartilage. Usually seen in men with a family history and usually in the joints of the big toe. People who suffered from gout are: King Henry VIII, Thomas Jefferson & Benjamin Franklin

Answer 55

"Lyme disease is caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi and is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected blacklegged ticks. Typical symptoms include fever, headache, fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash called erythema migrans. If left untreated, infection can spread to joints, the heart, and the nervous system. Lyme disease is diagnosed based on symptoms, physical findings (e.g., rash), and the possibility of exposure to infected ticks; laboratory testing is helpful if used correctly and performed with validated methods. Most cases of Lyme disease can be treated successfully with a few weeks of antibiotics. Steps to prevent Lyme disease include using insect repellent, removing ticks promptly, applying pesticides, and reducing tick habitat. The ticks that transmit Lyme disease can occasionally transmit other tickborne diseases as well."

Answer 56

Look this up?

Answer 57

"The cause of TMD is not clear, but dentists believe that symptoms arise from problems with the muscles of the jaw or with the parts of the joint itself. Injury to the jaw, temporomandibular joint, or muscles of the head and neck – such as from a heavy blow or whiplash – can cause TMD. Other possible causes include: Grinding or clenching the teeth, which puts a lot of pressure on the TMJ Dislocation of the soft cushion or disc between the ball and socket Presence of osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis in the TMJ Stress, which can cause a person to tighten facial and jaw muscles or clench the teeth"

Answer 58

LUXATION: ? SUBLUXATION: It implies the presence of an incomplete or partial dislocation of a joint or organ.

Exam 2: chapters 6, 7, & 8 Flashcards

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