Exam 2 (Lectures 14-16) Flashcards
(115 cards)
1
Q
Vitamins
A
organic small molecules needed to trace amounts from the diet
2
Q
Many vitamin derivatives are…
A
coenzymes
3
Q
Carrier Molecule: ATP
A
Phosphoryl carrier
4
Q
Carrier Molecule: NADH and NADPH
A
Electron Carrier
Vitamin precursor: Nicotinate (niacin)
5
Q
Carrier Molecule: FADH2 and FMNH2
A
Eclectron carrier
Vitamin Precursor: Riboflavin (Vit B2)
6
Q
Carrier Molecule: Coenzyme A
A
Acyl carrier
Vitamin precursor: Pantothenate
7
Q
Carrier Molecule: Lipoamide
A
Acyl carrier
8
Q
Carrier Molecule: Thiamine pyrophosphate
A
Aldehyde carrier
Vitamin precursor: thiamine (Vit B1)
9
Q
Carrier Molecule: Biotin
A
CO2 carrier
Vitamin precursor: biotin
10
Q
Carrier Molecule: Tetrahydrofolate
A
One-carbon unit carrier
Vitamin precursor: folate
11
Q
Carrier Molecule: S-Adenosylmethionine
A
Methyl carrier
12
Q
Carrier Molecule: Uridine diphosphate glucose
A
Glucose carrier
13
Q
Carrier Molecule: Cytidine diphosphate diacylglycerol
A
Phosphatidate carrier
14
Q
Carrier Molecule: Nucleoside trphosphates
A
Nucleotide carrier
15
Q
Thiamine (B1)
A
Coenzyme: thiamine pyrophosphate
Rxn Type: aldehyde transfer
Deficiency: beriberi (weight loss, heart probs, neurological dysfunction)
16
Q
Riboflavin (B2)
A
Coenzyme: flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
Rxn Type: RedOx
Deficiency: cheliosis and angular stomatitis (lesions of the mouth), dermatitis
17
Q
Pyridoxine (B6)
A
Coenzyme: Pyridoxal phosphate
Rxn Type: group transfer to or from amino acids
Deficiency: depression, confusion, convulsions
18
Q
Nicotinic Acid (B3)
A
Coenzyme: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
Rxn Type: RedOx
Deficiency: pellagra (dermatitis, depression, diarrhea)
19
Q
Pantothenic Acid (B5)
A
Coenzyme A
Rxn Type: acyl-group transfer
Deficiency: hypertension
20
Q
Biotin (B7)
A
Coenzyme: biotin-lysine adducts (biocytin)
Rxn Type: ATP-dependent carboxylation and carboxyl-group transfer
Deficiency: rash about the eyebrows, muscle pain, fatigue
21
Q
Folic Acid (B9)
A
Coenzyme: tetrahydrofolate
Rxn Type: transfer of one-carbon components; thymine synthesis
Deficiency: anemia, neural-tube defects in development
22
Q
B12
A
Coenzyme: 5’-deoxyadenosyl cobalamin
Rxn Type: transfer of methyl groups; intramolecular rearrangements
Deficiency: anemia, pernicious anemia, methylmalonic acidosis
23
Q
Lipid Soluble Vitamines:
A
Vit K1, Vit A, Vit E, Vit D2
24
Q
Noncoenzyme Vitamins
A
A, C, D, E, K
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Vitamin A
roles in vision, growth, reproduction
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Vitamin C
water soluble vitamin as an antioxidant
Deficiency: Scurvy (swollen and bleeding gums)
27
Vitamin D
regulation of calcium and phosphate metabolism
Deficiency: Rickets (children): skeletal deformaties, impaired growth
Osteomalacia (adults): soft bending bones
28
Vitamin E
Antioxidant
Deficiency: inhibition of sperm production, lesions in muscles and nerves
29
Vitamin K
Blood coagulation
Deficiency: subdermal hemorrhaging
30
What are the types of chemical reactions in metabolism?
RedOx, Ligation requiring ATP cleavage, Isomerization, Group transfer, Hydrolytic, Addition or removal of funtional groups
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Ligation requiring ATP cleavage
formation of covalent bonds
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Isomerization
rearrangement of atoms to form isomers
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Group Transfer
transfer of a functional group from one molecule to another
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Hydrolytic
cleavage of bonds by the addition of water
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Addition or removal of functional groups
addition of functional groups to double bonds or their removalto form double bonds
36
Things that are charged and/or bulky...
cannot move well across membranes
37
The overall free energy change for a couple set of reactions...
A ⇔ B + C
B⇔ D
is the sum of the change in free energy for individual reactions
38
Creatine phosphate
an important molecule for storage of high energy phosphate groups
39
What can drive the unfavorable reaction forward?
coupling of energetically unfavorable reactions to favored reactions
40
Oxidation of foods, carbohydrates, and fats yield...
CO2, energy, and reducing equivalents
41
Reducing Equivalents
electrons with high transfer potential
used to create an ion gradient across a membrane
the electrochemical potential produced by this dude is used to power the synthesis of ATP
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Harvesting ATP from food
Stage 1: food is broken down into smaller compounds
Stage 2: Glycolysis
Stage 3: Citric Acid Cycle or TCA or Kreb's
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Harvesting ATP from food:
Stage 1
Breakdown of food into smaller compounds such as:
proteins to amino acids
complex carbohydrates to simple sugars
fats to glycerol and fatty acids
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Harvesting ATP from food:
Stage 2
Glycolysis: when glucose and other simple sugars are broken down to generate CoA
Some ATP is generated in this stage
45
Harvesting ATP from food: Stage 3
Critric Acid Cycle or TCA or Kreb's
acetyl CoA group is fully oxidized to CO2 and electrons are produced
Most of ATP is generated in this stage
Occurs in the mitochondrion
46
Activated Carriers that are required in ATP Harvest
carriersof high energy electrons for fuel oxidation
NAD+ and FAD
47
Carbohydrates
organic molecules with the fomula:
(CH2O)n
48
Immediate Energy sources:
Glucose and Fructose
49
Stored sugar:
Glycogen and Starch in plants
50
Carbohydrates function as...
Energy source
Provides structure
Participate in Cell interactions
51
Carbohydrates: Energy Source
Immediate energy source
Stored Sugars
Metabolic intermediates
52
Carbohtdrates: Provide Structure
Cellulose (glucose polymer)
Chitin (sugar derivative)
Ribose and bacterial cell wall are roughly made from sugar
53
Carbohydrates: participate in cell interactions
Glycoproteins
Proteoglycans
Glycolipids
54
Glycoproteins
cell surface molecules involved in cell to cell interaction
Cell ID
ABO groups
55
Proteoglycans
molecules of the ECM
Chondroitin sulfate
Heparan sulfate
56
Isomers
compounds with the same chemical formula
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Stereoisomers
isomers with different configurations
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Enantiomers
stereoisomers that are mirror images of one another
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Diastereomers
stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another
60
Epimers
diastereomers differing at only one asymmetric carbon
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D and L in the names
designate the absolute configuration of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the aldehyde or ketone group
D sugars are commonly seen
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D-Glyceraldehyde
[](http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&docid=e3O-wMg83iTSqM&tbnid=N_nhCRBjM_L0YM:&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FStructural_Biochemistry%2FOrganic_Chemistry%2FStereochemistry&ei=4dAyVNfpAYqRyASFt4GACA&bvm=bv.76802529,d.aWw&psig=AFQjCNF3EjEBoOV14GPO04A-EgZVRndogw&ust=1412702813167084)
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D-Ribose
[](http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&docid=v2IHf2aSIpz9EM&tbnid=EkAWkwGRt4WzxM:&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspto.gov%2Fweb%2Fpatents%2Fclassification%2Fuspc536%2Fdefs536.htm&ei=OtEyVNmzHoWnyQSKxoAg&bvm=bv.76802529,d.aWw&psig=AFQjCNGq42QWWyW51TG6VkQ6ZvLK-oN0pw&ust=1412702899097976)
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D-Glucose
[](http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&docid=OEaJSA1PEdismM&tbnid=1HSYTuxw5y1GZM:&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.uvu.edu%2Fochem%2Findex.php%2Falphabetical%2Fg-h%2Fhaworth-formula%2F&ei=KtIyVJzfLYinyATj0YK4Cg&bvm=bv.76802529,d.aWw&psig=AFQjCNFx3P7FDstQuE1uH6pU_BfyrZntpg&ust=1412703139572323)
65
D-Mannose
[](http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&docid=OrDtk8L06v3-KM&tbnid=q_0_vFQuACLBTM:&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemeddl.org%2Fresources%2Fmodels360%2Fmodels.php%3Fpubchem%3D161658&ei=aNIyVPvoLsKHyAS2l4KYDA&bvm=bv.76802529,d.aWw&psig=AFQjCNEReL6_C6mAeQwRuMU1VLb6C7hcHA&ust=1412703186755212)
## Footnote
66
D-Galactose
[](http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&docid=rDu0xRq8XLBf8M&tbnid=MnvX3QjK3rMy3M:&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemeddl.org%2Fresources%2Fmodels360%2Fmodels.php%3Fpubchem%3D6036&ei=oNIyVNLBOs2gyATTgoKAAQ&bvm=bv.76802529,d.aWw&psig=AFQjCNHSzVHw9EcsN26cHN-RcybJ6j-kPg&ust=1412703260104652)
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Dihydroxyacetone
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D-Fructose
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Glycosides
acetals of carbohydrates
70
Glycosidic Bonds
bonds that result in formation of an acetal
N- or O-glycosidic (Nitrogen- or Oxygen-)
71
A glycosidic bond between 2 monosaccharides produces...
a disaccharide attached through an ether linkage
72
Where are the anomeric carbons for aldoses and ketoses?
in C1 and C2 respectively
73
Sucrose
transport form of plant sugar; 1 α → 2 ß
glucose - fructose
74
Lactose
milk sugar; 1 ß → 4 α
galactose - glucose
75
Maltose
breakdown product of starch 1 α → 4 α
glucose - glucose
76
Which disaccharides is not a reducing sugar?
Sucrose because both of the anomeric carbons are unable to open up since C1, glucose, is an acetal and C2, fructose, is a ketal
77
What are the storage forms of glucose?
cellulose, starch and glycogen
78
Activated Sugar
linked in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction to a target molecule
79
Carbohydrates can be attached to proteins through...
N- or O- linkage to asparagine or serine residues
80
glycoproteins
glycosylated proteins
81
Major component in proteoglycan is...
sugar
82
N-linked sugars are added in...
endoplasmic reticulum en bloc from an ER carrier lipid, dolichol phosphate
83
GlcNac N-acetylglucosamine
it is a carbohydrate derivative
84
N-linked sugars are processed in...
the golgi apparatus, some sugars are removed and added until it reaches its final configuration
85
Dolichol Phosphate
an activated dolichol that is a lipid found in the lumenal face of the ER
platform that polysaccharides, destined to become N-linked sugars, are built
86
Carbohydrates carry structural information:
Glycosylation at specific amino acid residues in proteins
Checmial identity of carbohydrates in the polysaccharide chain
Sequence of carbohydrate addition
α- β-anomers
Linkage through different OH groups
Branching
87
Lectin
is a cell surface receptor that recognize carbohydrates with a specificity brought about through multiple weak interactions
88
Liver: Glucose monitor
removes excess glucose for storage as glycogen
releases glucose to feed other tissues
ensures enough glucose for other tissues (Brain/RBCs)
89
Pancreas: glucose monitor
hormonally regulates glucose levels, releasing:
insulin (when glucose is high)
Glucagon (when glucose is low)
90
Brain's primary fuel source is...
glucose
91
RBCs only fuel source is...
Glucose
92
Muscles: Glucose metabolism
use glucose as rapid energy source & store as glycogen
93
Adipocytes: glucose metabolism
take up excess glucose to make fats
94
What is the role of a glucose transporter (GLUT)?
to ensure that all tissues can take up a basal amount of glucose necessary for the cells to carry out their cellular functions
95
GLUT 1 and GLUT 3
Found in all mammalian tissues
Km = 1 mM
Basal Glucose uptake
96
GLUT 2
Found in liver and pancreatic ß cells
Km = 15-20 mM
removes excess glucose in the blood (liver)
plays a role in regulation of insulin (pancreas)
97
GLUT 4
Found in muscle and fat cells
Km = 5 mM
amount in muscle plasma membrane increases with endurance training
98
Lower Km means...
higher in affinity
99
Stages of Glycolysis
1. Trapping glucose in the cell and activation of glucose (req 2 ATP)
2. Splitting: cleaving one hexose; isomerization to yield 2 identical trioses
3. Harvesting: yields 4 ATP, 2 NADH, & 2 pyruvate
100
Glycolysis: Stage 1
Getting ready to split glucose in two
Phosphorylation (req ATP) traps glucose in the cell and destabilizes glucose
Reorganization ensures the aldose reaction yield is 2 trioses
Further destabilization (req ATP) ensures a yield of 2 triose phosphates
101
Stage 1 Glycolysis: Reaction 1
addition of phosphate group at C6 to trap glucose in the cell\
Enzyme Used: Hexokinase or Glucokinase
The reaction favors the product so Hexokinase is regulated however, Glucokinase (found in liver) is not regulated.
102
Glucokinase and Hexokinase
Under normal conditions, Hexokinase is used to phosphorylate glucose, but when concentration of glucose are high glucokinase will begin to pick up the glucose and phosphorylate
Negative Effector: product inhibition (build up of G6P the molecule goes back and inhibits the enzyme that makes it)
103
Stage 1 Glycolysis: Reaction 2
Isomerization of glucose 6 phosphate (G-6P) to fructose 6-phosphate (F-6P)
Enzyme used: Phosphoglucose Isomerase
104
Stage 1 Glycolysis: Reaction 3
essentially irreversible addition of phophate group to C1 (req 1 ATP)
Enzyme Used: Phosphofructokinase (**_most __highly regulated_**) 
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Phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK1)
sets the pace in glycolysis in liver and muscle
Negative Effectors: High ATP/AMP, citrate, glucagon
Positive Effectors: Low ATP/AMP, pH, F2, 6-BP, insulin
106
Glycolysis: Stage 2 Step 1
Generating two 3-Carbon molecules (DHAP and GAP)
Enzyme Used: Aldolase
107
Glycolysis: Stage 2 Step 2
Isomerization of DHAP to GAP
Enzyme Used: Triose Phosphate Isomerase
108
Glycolysis: Stage 2 Step 3
Addition of Phosphate to C1 to form 1,3-BPG: high phosphate group transfer potential
Enzyme Used: Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase
109
Glycolysis: Stage 3 Step 1
Substrate level phosphorylation of ADP by 1,3-BP to form ATP and 3PG
Enzyme Used: Phosphoglycerate Kinase
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Glycolysis: Stage 3 Step 2
Mutase rxn - moving the phosphate group from C3 to C2 (beta to alpha)
Enzyme Used: Phosphoglycerate Mutase
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Glycolysis: Stage 3 Step 3
Dehydration, preparing to generate ATP
Enzyme Used: Enolase
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Glycolysis: Stage 3 Step 4
Phosphoryl transfer to generate ATP and pyruvate
Enzyme Used: Pyruvate kinase
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Pyruvate Kinase
Negative Effectors: Alanine, Glucagon, Phosphorylation
Positive Effectors: F1, 6-BP, insulin
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Glycolysis Yield from one molecule of Glucose
Yield: 4 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate
Consumed: 2 ATP, 2 NAD+
115
