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Animal Nutrition and Physiology > exam 3 > Flashcards

exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the accessory disgestive organs of the GI tract?

A

teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gall bladder

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2
Q

what is the largest gland in the body?

A

liver

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3
Q

what are the microscopic functional units of the liver composed of?

A

lobules: hexogonal units of fibrous connective tissue made of hepatocytes to filter blood and surround a cental vein with each of the six points containing a triad

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4
Q

what is a triad?

A

portal triads are made of a 1. branch oxygenated artery, 2. branch of nutrient rich, deoxygenated portal vien, and 3. the bile duct

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5
Q

what are sinusoid capillaries?

A

located in the tunica intima (endothelium), they have large window fenestrations for exchange of the liver and hepatocytes to increase permeability and drain all organs in the paretoneal cavity

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6
Q

true or false: sinusoids have a basement membrane

A

false, they have fenestrations to faciliated the movement of macromolecules

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7
Q

increased surface area of the liver does what?

A

slows blood movement for better absorption

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8
Q

what are the main functions of the liver?

A
  1. secrete bile
  2. store glucose (as glycogen) / glucose metabolism (in gluconeogenesis)
  3. make proteins: albumin for heme
  4. detoxify toxic metabolites to excrete
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9
Q

what is the bile caniculi?

A

it is a canal formed to by the bile duct and heptocyte (liver cells)

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10
Q

what is the difference between gluconeogenesis and glyogen storage for metabolic storage?

A

glycogen uses glucose and glucogenesis uses a non-carb source

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11
Q

define albumin

A

they are protein made in the liver for iron metabolism from heme

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12
Q

what if bile?

A

green- yellow fluid made of water, electrolytes, bilirubin from hematocyte liver cells and is excreted from the gallbladder by the cystic duct

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13
Q

what is the chief pigment of bile?

A

bilirubin: breaks down RBCs (red blood cells) takes the the heme

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14
Q

why is heme used by bile?

A

for iron

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15
Q

where do bile salts come from?

A

they are dervided from chloesterol derivatives that are amipathic (polar and nonpolar) to break down fats to lead to absorption by lipase

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16
Q

what does lipase do?

A

breaks down (emulsifies) lipids/ fats into smaller molecules to be soluble in aqueous solutions and enable chemical digestion and absorption

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17
Q

what is the function of the pancrease?

A

produces prancreatic juice as a exocrine function to increase pH (make more basic) by pancreatic acini cells

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18
Q

what is acini?

A

large/ swollen grape/ berry pancreatic exocrine cells that produce (zyomgen) enzymes

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19
Q

what is the endocrine function of the pancreas?

A

to absorb glucagon and insulin

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20
Q

how does the pancreas increase/ or decrease the pH

A

the pancreas increases the pH (makes more basic) because it excretes bicarbonate which nuetralizes acidic chyme

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21
Q

what enzymes are produced by the pancreas?

A

lipases, nucleases, proteases/ peptidases, amylases

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22
Q

what are the three proteases excreted by the prancreas? what are their functions?

A
  1. Chymotrypsin cleaves proteins on the carbonyl side of aromatic residues
  2. Trypsin hydrolyzesresidues with positively charged side chains
  3. Elastase hydrolyzes residues with small uncharged side chains
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23
Q

what are the types of membrane transport?

A

active and passive diffusion across cell membrane (first two are passive)
1. simple
2. facilitated
3. primary active
4. secondary active

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24
Q

differnce between simple and facilitated diffusion

A

simple: no protein, carrier (transporter), channel help neeeded
facilitated diffusion: uses a protein for bigger, polar, charged moleucules

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25
Q

role of channel in diffusion

A

a hydrophilic canal/ pasage way for molecules in facilitated diffusion

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26
Q

true or false: small molecules require a channel

A

false, small molecules do not require assistance across plasma membrane for diffusion

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27
Q

difference between carrier and channel

A

carriers are transporters that change shape after binding to carry solute to all a solute to enter the cell and change back once in the cell

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28
Q

is a channel or a carrier referred to as a transporter? why?

A

carrier proteins are transporters because they change shape (trans) by binding to the solute and carry (port) across

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29
Q

what are the two forms of active transport?

A
  1. primary: directly uses ATP hydrolysis for energy
  2. secondary: indirectly uses ATP hydrolysis for energy
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30
Q

difference between active and passive transport

A

passive: is simple or facilitated diffusion that moves down a concentration gradient and does not require energy
active: moves against concentration gradient and requires ATP enegery

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31
Q

what are the types of carrier mediated transports?

there are two broad groups and two embedded in one of the groups

A
  1. uniports: one molecule
  2. coports: two molecules
    a. symport: same direction of two molecules
    b. antiport: opposite direction of two molecules
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32
Q

where does the majority of digestion occur in the GI tract?

A

across the apical membrane in the jejunum (second segment) of the small intestine. monomers are absorbed after passing the basolateral membrane into intersistial fluid/ blood and lymph capillaries

33
Q

what is the type of absorption of amino acids, carbohydrates, fats, and nucliec acids?

A
  1. amino acids/ proteins: monomeric symport co transport with sodium (Na+) by secondary active transport (indirect ATP hydrolysis)
  2. carbohydrates/ simple sugars: monomeric symport co transport with sodium (Na+) by secondary active transport (indirect ATP hydrolysis)
  3. fats/ lipids: monoglyceride and fatty acidsinto micelles simple diffusion
  4. nucleic acids: sub-monomer absportion (phosphate group- Na+ dependent paracellular transport, pentose sugar- simple diffusion, nitrogen base- Na+ dependent facilitated diffusion)
34
Q

carbohydrate absorption

A
  1. Polysaccharides, sugar, and starches are made up of CHO (1:2:1 ratio) where pancreatic amylases break down starch and glycogen into oligosaccarides (2) and disaccharides (2- maltose and sucrose)
  2. brush boarder enzymes maltase and sucrase further reduce these into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose)
  3. the monomers are cotransporteed from the lumen across the apical membrane by the SGLT (sodium-glucose symport transporter) using the active transport NA+ K- pump
  4. monosaccharides exit across basolateral membrane by facilitaed diffustion and enter capillaries
35
Q

what are the three oligosaccharides monomers?

A
  1. maltose: two glucose
  2. sucrose: one glucose and one fructose
  3. lactose: one glucose and one galactose
36
Q

what confirmation must carbohydrates digest to before absorption?

A

into simple sugars of monosaccharide

37
Q

nucleic acid absorption

A

not considered a macronutrient as the nucleotide tide units are absorbed in the three constituent parts beginning in the stomach and small intestine
1. the pepsinnuclease enzymes cleave polynucleotides into nucleotides
2. nucleosideases: hydrolyze bond between pentose sugar and nitrogenous base
3. phosphateases: hydrolyze bond between phosphate group and pentose sugar

38
Q

which disaccharide is table sugar?

A

sucrose: made of one glucose and one fructose

39
Q

what is absorbed from nucleic acids and what is their methods?

A

nucleosides:
1. nitrogenbases- by facialitated diffustion and Na+ dependent mechanisms
2. pentose (5 carbon ) sugars: simple diffusion (no GLT or GLUTs needed) across enterocyte apical membrane
3. phosphates (HPO4 2-): Na + dependent and paracellular (between cells) transport

40
Q

what are the transports of carbohydrates across the apical and basolateral membranes?

A

apical: active transport of monosaccharides by SGLT transporter using Na+ concentration gradient
basolateral: primary direct ATP hydrolytic facilitated diffusion by GLUT transporter into capillaries

41
Q

protein absorption

A
  1. many small di- and tri- peptides catabolize into monomeric amino acids by low stomach pH
  2. proteases and trypsin enzymes of enterocyte brush boarder to fragment proteins
  3. sodium amino acid cotransporter (NAAT) transports amino acids across the apical membrane
  4. amino acids exist across basolateral membrane by faciliated diffusion and enter capillaries
42
Q

what are chylomicrons?

A

lipoproteins packaged with cholesterol (FAs)

42
Q

lipid absorption:

A

lipids are nonpolar/ insoluble in water
1. bile salts emulsify (extract fat globules) and break down into smaller droplets to allow lipase to access glycerol and fatty acids
2. pancreatic lipases hydrolyze triglycerides to produce monoglycerides and free FAs are released
3. hydrolyzed triglycerides and bile salts form micelles
(lipid monolayer)
– Bring lipids in close contact with enterocyte
4. Fatty acids and monoglycerides diffuse from micelles
into enterocytes and convert into trigylercides packaged in chylomicrones

43
Q

digestion and absorption summary

A

got it, ty

44
Q

define the following and their relationship to one another:
- kilocalories (in science and food)
- nutrient
- macronutrient
- micronutrient
- vitamin
- mineral

A
  1. kilocalories (in science and food): sci- unit to measure energy in food, amount of heat needed to raise temp of one kilogram of water by 1 C
  2. nutrient: substance in food needed for growth, maintainence, repair, and provides energy
  3. macronutrient: needed in large amounts (proteins, lipids/fats, carbohydrates/ sugars + water)
  4. micronutrient: needed in smaller amounts (vitamins and minerals)
  5. vitamin: carbon incorporated organic unit that function as coenzymes that may be water or lipid soluble
  6. mineral: inorganic metallic cofactors of enzymes that lack carbon and typically ionized
45
Q

1 calorie is equal to:
_ joules
_ kiliocalories
_ Calorie

A

4.184 joules
1 kiliocalories
1 Calorie= 1000 calories

46
Q

what are the two form of metabolism?

A

catabolism: reactions that break complex molecules into simpler ones (by enzymatic hydrolysis- cellular respiration to make ATP)
anabolism: reactions that build complex molecules from simpler ones and require energy

47
Q

cellular respiration

goal, reactants, products, type of metabolism

A

aerobic (O2) catabolic metabolism of glucose to produce ATP (36-38)
reactants: glucose and oxygen
products: carbon dioxide and water and ATP

48
Q

what are the three stages of metabolism?

A
  1. diegestion, absorption, and transport of nutrients (catabolism)
  2. cellular processing in the cytoplasm (glycogen storage, glycolysis, and fermentation)
  3. mitochondrial processing of nutrients (ATP synthesisby krebs cycle)
49
Q

what is ATP?

A

adenosine triphosphate stores energy within its bonds and releases when hydrolyzed because of the instability of the O- atom

50
Q

what is the cloaca?

A

the common opening/ vent in chickens to the RED reproductive, excretory, and digestive tracts

51
Q

what kinds of animals is the cloaca present in?

A
  • mammals (monotremes)
  • birds
  • repitles
  • amphibians
52
Q

avaian reptiles are another word for?

A

birds

53
Q

the bird’s GI tract

A
  • in the mouth: lacks teeth, no mechanical digestion, beak/bill variation
  • crop: storage of undigested food between esophagus and proventriculus
  • two part stomach: proventriculus and gizzard/ ventriculus
  • small and large intestine: with ceca out pocketings to slow digestion in some birds
54
Q

what is the proventriculus function?

A

after the crop of the bird’s GI tract, the first part of the stomach has gastric pits that secrete HCl, pepsinogen (protein enzymes), and mucus by exocrine glands at a pH of 1.5-3.5

55
Q

what is the gizzard/ ventriculus function?

A

the muscular action made by the Koilin cuticle layer creating gastrolith to help with digestion and acting with the proventriculus as one unit

56
Q

birds small and large intestine

A

small: duodenal-jejunum-ileum 20 feet long
- 4 exocrine duct opening in duodenum
- most macronutrient absorbption in jejunum
- water/ mineral aborbed in ileum (+ fats and carbs)
large: 4 ft long
- ceca: out-pocketings for fermentation, mineral/ water absorbption in some
-rectum: short canal leading to common cloaca duct

57
Q

cellular respiration

reactants, products, energy used and produced?

A

oxygen (O2) requiring aerobic reaction using 2 ATP to create 36-38 ATP
reactant: glucose and oxygen
products: carbon dioxide and water

58
Q

glycolysis

three main phases

A

10 step pathway in the cytoplasm of the oxidation of glucose
1. sugar activation: uses 2 ATP and consumes energy (investment stage)
2. sugar cleavage: splits 6 carbon glucose into two 3 carbon pyruvates
3. sugar oxidation and ATP formation
- 4 ATP made (2 overall bc 2 used)
- 2 NADH made (reducing power)
- forms 2 pyruvate

59
Q

what does the fate of pyruvate depend on?

A

oxygen
- in the absence of O2: pyruvate is REDUCED to lactic acid
- in presence of O2: pyruvate enters CAC/ Krebs

60
Q

the CAC/ Krebs/ TCA cycle

where does is occur, purpose, etc.

A

entering the mitochondria, each 3 carbon pyruvate begins
1. decarboxlation
2. oxidation
3. formation of acetyl coA into oxaloacetic acids to make citric acid
produces: (2 ATP, 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2 ) x2
purpose: regenerating oxcaloacetic acid

61
Q

electric transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation

phases, composition, recation

A

only pathway directly using oxygen
1. ETC
2. chemiosmosis- H+ gradient

there are four protein complexes and electrons are passed through each by redox reactions using H+ proton pump

62
Q

diet differneces in dentition of herbivores, canivores, and omivores

A
63
Q

differences in gut length of herbivores, canivores, and omivores

A
64
Q

carbohydrate absorption in of herbivores, canivores, and omivores

A
65
Q

what is cellulose? how does it affect digestion?

A

hemicellular stucture made of pectin in plant cell walls
needs to be broken down by cellusases (endoglucanase and exoglucanase) to get to glucose but animals do not make endogenus cellulases

66
Q

how can animals digest plants?

A

Animals do not make endogenous cellulases that break down cellulose in plant cell walls so they rely on their gut microbiome of bacteria and protist- espcially in herbivores

67
Q

what are volatile fatty acids?

A

short chains of carbon atoms (2-6 carbons) of cellulose
- SCFAs (microbiome)

68
Q

which of the following [herbivore, canivore, or ominvore] species are known as fermentors?

why, what organs are involved?

A

herbivores because they have specialized regions/ organs that house microbes for oxygen lacking anaerobic respiration in the stomach and intestines

69
Q

cellulose/ hemicellulose are made of what (monomeric) subunits?

A

volatile short chain (2-6) carbon fatty acids that break down by microbial fermentation into 2-4 carbon carboxylic acids

70
Q

the human large insestine:
two ends, five segments

A

runs from the ileocal valve of the small intestine to the anus
1. cecum: recieves chyme from SI
2. appendix: contains lymph tissue
3. colon: water absorbed, waste made into feces
- ascending
- transverse
- descending
- sigmoid
4. rectum: storage site for feces
5. anal canal: outside abdominopelvic cavity, two sphincters

71
Q

what two ways is cellulose released?

A

foregut fermentation: process of ruminants, cattle
hindgut fermentation: monograstic organisms with two types
1. colonic (equine): horses, rabbits, hares, some rodents, some reptiles
2. cecal: some rodents, some reptiles, humans

72
Q

comapring fermenters, what percent of GI volume is most prevelant in ruminant (foregut fermenters) and colonic/ equine (hindgut fermentors)?

A

foregut ruminant: 70% GI mass in stomach
hindgut colonic/ equine: 45% GI mass in the large intestine

73
Q

digestive tract of a colonic fermenter

A
  • mouth: lips, premaxilla and mandibular incisors, copious saliva (4L/day), not much salivary amylase or lipase
  • pharynx, esophagus
  • stomach: glandular secretions of HCl, pepsinogen, nonglandular storage holding 10-15 L
  • SI: 70 feet of DJI secreting bile, hydro carbonate (HCO3-), proteases for proteins, and amylase for colic nonstructured starch digestion, fats (bile, FFA, monoglycerides, glycerol)
  • LI: microbial enzymes for anaerobic fermentation of cellulose in the cecum VFAs takes < 7 hours – large colon: wide diameter, narrows to small colon for water absorption, rectum about one foot long
74
Q

cellulose vs. starch

A

cellulose: hemicellulases made of pectin found in plant cell walls of grasses, needs micrbobial gut assistance for digestion
- monomer: VFA- short chain 2-6 carbon volatile fatty acids
starch: polysaccharides found in grains and cereals, salivary amylase enzymes made by the consuming organism
- monomer: simple sugars (ex: glucose)

75
Q

depening on work load, how much forage (food) of different type to horses need?

A
  1. no work, no grain, only hay
  2. more work, more grain and decreased hay
76
Q

macromolcules absorption begins in what part of the digestion system (what organ)

A
77
Q

what is absorbed in a horse’s large intestine?

A

VFA: volatile short chained fatty acids
HVFAs are not ionized and promote exchange

Animal Nutrition and Physiology (10 decks)

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