Exam 3 Flashcards
(103 cards)
1
Q
What are the layers of the germinal cell?
A
- Ectoderm (External Layer)
- Mesoderm (Middle Layer)
- Endoderm (Internal Layer)
2
Q
Which germinal cell layer gives rise to the nervous system?
A
Ectoderm (External Layer)
3
Q
Gives rise to the CNS
A
Neural tube
4
Q
thickening of cells in ectoderm at uneven rates
A
Neural plate
5
Q
What can happen if the neural tube doesnt close properly?
A
- Anecephaly
- Open spina bifida
6
Q
Open brain and lack of skull vault due to neural tube not closing properly
A
Anencephaly
7
Q
spinal cord is exposed due to neural tube not closing properly
A
Open spina bifida
8
Q
Cellular development processes in order (6)
A
- Cell birth/neurogenesis
- Migration
- Differentiation
- Axon Outgrowth
- Rearrangement and regression (apoptosis)
- Myelination
9
Q
cell birth along the lining of the ventricles, central canal and the aqueducts that connect the ventricles
A
Neurogenesis
(step 1)
10
Q
After cell birth, the neurons don’t stay in the ventricles, rather cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) guide _____.
A
Migration
(step 2)
11
Q
Neurons are different in shape, transmitters they release, receptors they have, and so much more.
A
Differentiation
(step 3)
12
Q
Uneven distribution of gene expression patterns, the cell’s fate is predetermined. Differentiation process
A
Mitotic Lineage
13
Q
One cell “directs” gene expression of another due to exposure to intercellular signals. Differentiation process
A
Cell-on-cell interactions
14
Q
Growth cones responding to signaling factors (Chemoattractants and Chemorepellants) causes ____.
A
Axon Outgrowth
(step 4)
15
Q
Neurons die as part of normal development
A
Apoptosis
16
Q
Apoptotic cell death is regulated by caspases
A
Rearrangement and Regression
(step 5)
17
Q
Forms the PNS
A
Neural Crest
18
Q
Once axons reach their final destination they induce nearby glia to begin ____.
A
Myelination
(step 6)
19
Q
external agent such as various chemicals, hyperthermia, medication, or viruses that causes abnormalities (birth defects) during development
A
Teratogen
20
Q
Almost all neurons are born ________, with the exception of ____, ____, and ____.
A
very early on in development; olfactory bulb; hippocampus; striatum
21
Q
What determines if certain neurons survive or die?
A
The amount of neurotrophic factors that the cell gathers
22
Q
Many neurons go in a direction perpendicular to the surface along a “glial scaffold”
A
Radial migration
23
Q
Some neurons go in a direction
parallel to the surface
A
tangential migration
24
Q
What do chemical cues or signaling factors have to do with growth cones and the guidance of an axon
to its target as it grows?
A
Growth cones respond to signal factors (such as CAMs) that trigger axon outgrowth. CAMs such as chemoattractants and chemorepellents guide the axon to the target as it grows
25
What are trophic factors and how are they related to cell death?
The lack of neurotrophic factors causes cell death for a neuron
26
Does neural rearrangement and regression stop at birth? What about myelination?
No, pruning happens in adolescence and myelination continues postnatal
27
Cloth mother vs Wire mother with milk; Need for comfort exceeds need for survival
Harry Harlow
28
controls the differential expressions of genes, can change depending on the environment and can be passed down generation to generation
Epigenome
29
What does DNA methylation have to do with the epigenome and how does it work?
DNA methylation regulates gene expression by recruiting proteins involved in gene repression or by inhibiting the binding of transcription factor(s) to DNA.
30
receptor cells "transduce" energy in stimulus into change in electrical potential across membrane
Sensory transduction
31
the sense of vision responds to ______ stimulus and is a _______ sensory system.
visible radiant energy; visual
32
the sense of hearing responds to ______ stimulus and is a _______ sensory system.
sound vibration in air; mechanical
33
the sense of touch responds to ______ stimulus and is a _______ sensory system.
contact of body surface; mechanical
34
the sense of proprioception responds to ______ stimulus and is a _______ sensory system.
body position; mechanical
35
the sense of vestibular responds to ______ stimulus and is a _______ sensory system.
head movement and orientation; mechanical
36
the sense of taste responds to ______ stimulus and is a _______ sensory system.
substances in contact with tongue; chemical
37
the sense of smell responds to ______ stimulus and is a _______ sensory system.
odorous substances in air; chemical
38
the sense of hot vs cold responds to ______ stimulus and is a _______ sensory system.
changes in temp; thermal
39
Describe the pathway sensory information takes to reach the brain
Touch receptors --> Sensory neurons --> Dorsal root ganglia --> Spinal cord --> medulla --> midbrain --> sensory cortex
40
Which is false?
a. The thalamus is an important relay station
b. all sensory systems travel through the same pathway
c. information goes to the sensory cortex after reaching the thalamus
d. different animals have different sensory homunculi
e. if someone has their hand amputated, the cortical area adjacent to the area dedicated to the hand will take over the area
b. all sensory systems travel through the same pathway
Eyes process stimulus differently than how touch processes stimuli
41
the somatosensory cortex in proportion to their receptor density
Sensory homunculus
42
Where are taste receptors located?
in the groves of the papilla (bumps on tongue), there are taste buds with taste cells bunched together
43
Where are smell receptors located?
receptor neurons in the nose
44
Involves Facial nerve (VII), Glossopharyngeal (IX), Vagus nerve (X)
nerves involved in taste
45
A close connection with _____ and ____ causes strong memories from ____.
Amygdala; hippocampus; smell
46
Captures, focuses, and filters sound
External ear (pinna)
47
Concentrates sound energies through the tympanic membrane and ossicles
Middle ear
48
Converts vibrational energy into waves of fluid
Inner ear
(Cochlea connects receptor cells and terminations of the auditory nerve)
49
Receptor cells for the vestibular/auditory systems are located in the ____, attached to the ___.
inner ear, cochlea
50
The range of sounds humans can hear is...
20 Hz to 20KHz
51
at center of retina (no rods)
fovea
52
area where axons of retinal ganglion cells leave the eye
Optic disk
(blind spot)
53
highly responsive to bright light; specialized for color and high visual acuity; mostly in the fovea; three types
cones
54
more numerous; sensitive to low levels of light; used mainly for night vision; not specialized for color
Rods
55
axons of retinal ganglion cells that connect with
optic nerve
56
Describe the pathway visual information takes to reach the brain (start with right visual field)
right visual field --> left side of retina --> rods/cones --> optic nerve --> optic chasm crosses over to left side --> processed by left side of occipital cortex
57
Identifying objects in sight; what
Ventral processing stream
58
Assessing the location of objects in sight; where
Dorsal processing stream
59
Key players in the motor systems
skeleton and muscles; spinal cord; motor cortex; basal ganglia; cerebellum; brainstem
60
connects skeletal muscle to bones
tendons
61
thin filament that is forcibly moved by another type of filament, which shortens the muscle and causes muscle contraction
Actin
62
thick filament that binds to and moves another type of filament, which shortens the muscle and causes muscle contraction
Myosin
63
where Motor Neurons (MN) are located
Ventral "horn"
64
The connection of the motor neuron and the muscle fibers, where a motor neuron can release Acetylcholine (ACh) to stimulate the muscle
Neuromuscular Junction
64
Degradation of MNs in the brain and spinal cord and subsequent loss of their target muscles
ALS
65
When the spinal cord acts independently from the brain, either with quick responses or with rhythmic patterns
Reflexes (like touching a hot stove) and Central Pattern Generations (like walking)
66
List the path the pyramidal system (or corticospinal pathway) takes
cerebral cortex --> upper medulla --> fibers cross to the opposite sides --> lower medulla --> spinal cord
67
whats the difference between the pyramidal system and the extrapyramidal system?
Pyramidal system: connects motor cortex directly to motor neurons and contracts muscles, which involves initiation of movement that can lead to paralysis
Extrapyramidal system: aspects of movement, such as smoothness, damage can cause Parkinson's disease or Huntingtons Chorea
68
visual representation of the brain's motor cortex, showing how different body parts are represented in the brain's motor area
Motor homunculus
69
they trigger when either an individual makes a particular movement and when an individual sees another individual make a particular movement
Mirror neurons
70
coordination of movement; allows for proper timing and execution; allows correction of errors
cerebellum
71
involved in the initiation and organization of subconscious movement sequences
Basal ganglia
72
degradation of the caudate nucleus and putamen; uncontrollable movement; genetic only
Huntington's Chorea
73
degradation of dopamine producting cells in the substancia nigra; decreased DA in the basal ganglia; resting tremor, slow movement, difficulty starting movement, rigidity; genes but also toxins and head trauma
Parkinson's Disease
74
artificial extension that replace body parts
prosthetics
75
assistive devices that restore functions lost as a result of neural damage
neural prosthetics
76
involves nerve-rerouting surgery, potentially allowing "feeling"
Bionic limbs
77
animals born in a relatively advanced state
Precocial species
78
Animals born in a helpless state
Altricial Species
79
Driven by internal clock, this rhythm takes approximately a day to complete and drives melatonin production, heart rate, cortisol production and more.
Circadian rhythm
80
Active during the day
Diurnal
81
Active during the night
Nocturnal
82
Why should we care about circadian rhythms?
Understand how time of day can impact performance and disasters
83
An external cue influences when an organism is awake or asleep
Zietgeber time
84
rhythm shown when individual deprived of cues about time of day
Free-running
85
contains the main circadian clock
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
86
What approaches were taken in order to prove that the SCN was the masterclock?
- lesions in the SCN abolish activities and drinking rhythms
- SCN maintains electrical rhythms in vitro
- SCN transplants restore circadian rhythms to SCN lesioned animals
- SCN contains thousands of neurons
- Individual SCN cells are oscillators
87
molecular basis of circadian oscillation -- transcriptional/translational feedback loop
the "molecular clock"
88
reduce level of stimulus/input (closing eyes)
Accessory Structures
89
upper brain regions (thalamus cortex) modulate activity of lower centers, amplifying some information while suppressing others
top-down processing
90
a strip of skin innervated by a particular spinal nerve
dermatone
91
a receptor that responds to stimuli that produces tissue damage or poses the threat of damage
nociceptor
92
retina adapts to low level of illumination; Which receptor adapts fastest?; Which receptor helps see in the dark easier?
dark adaptation; cones; rods
93
when they contract, they decrease angle between bones at joint (biceps)
Flexor muscles
94
When they contract, they increase the angle between bones at a joint (triceps)
Extensor muscles
95
included in the initiation of motor movement
primary motor cortex
96
_____ and _____ contribute to movement (planning, coordination)
Supplementary motor cortex; premotor cortex
97
Each muscle fiber forms from fusion of ______, resulting cell has many nuclei
myoblasts
98
some muscles are controlled directly by _____.
Brainstem
99
duration > than a day
(yearly, monthly, 5 days)
Infradian
100
duration < than a day
(hours, minutes, seconds)
Ultradian
101
process of synchronizing to an environmental stimulus
Entrainment
102
Active during the transition from day and night
Crespuscal
