Final Exam Flashcards
(136 cards)
1
Q
the study of biological bases of psychological processes and behavior
A
Behavioral Neuroscience
2
Q
What are the two main messages from behavioral neuroscience?
A
- brain regulates behavior
- behavior and experience can affect the brain
3
Q
How/mechanism; consider the lifetime of individual
A
“Proximate”
4
Q
Who created the Proximate/Ultimate analysis?
A
Niko Tinburgen
5
Q
Why; consider evolutionary time
A
“Ultimate”
6
Q
Behavior related to brain activity
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Proximate: Physiological
7
Q
Development of the structure or behavior
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Proximate: Developmental
8
Q
Evolutionary history
A
Ultimate: Evolutionary
9
Q
Why a behavior evolved
A
Ultimate: Functional
10
Q
X-Rays from all around the head. Structural Technique.
A
CAT or CT
11
Q
Large magnet; distinguishing regions with varying cell densities; more detailed than CT scans. Structural Technique
A
MRI
12
Q
Modified form of MRI, determines direction of fiber tracts within the brain (maps brain connections). Structural Technique
A
DTI
13
Q
Electrical waves of brain activity, not that sensitive to look at the deep brain or specific structures but not invasive. Functional/activity technique
A
EEG
14
Q
Radioactive chemicals (most often glucose) injected into the bloodstream which travel to specific regions under different conditions. Functional/activity technique
A
PET Scan
15
Q
Magnetic field gradients used to detect changes in blood flow, identifies brain regions active during a given task. Functional/activity technique
A
fMRI
16
Q
Why is animal research important in the study of the brain and behavior?
A
Allows test to be carried out on other organisms before humans, however there are many regulatory bodies such as IACUC @ MSU
17
Q
fine motor coordination and balance, memory
A
cerebellum
18
Q
Relay station; feeds info and receives info from cortex
A
thalamus
19
Q
Maintaining homeostasis
A
hypothalamus
20
Q
Emotional regulation
A
amygdala
21
Q
Learning and memory
A
hippocampus
22
Q
Motor control
A
basal ganglia
23
Q
communication from the hemispheres to each other
A
corpus callosum
24
Q
Movement, speech, memory, intellegence
A
frontal lobe
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Processes sensory information
parietal lobe
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Hearing, language, olfaction, gustation
temporal lobe
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Processes vision
occipital lobe
28
Your nose is ________ to your mouth (coronal
plane)
Dorsal
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Your cheeks are _________ to your nose
(coronal plane)
Lateral
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The tip of your nose is _________to the back of your head (sagittal plane)
Rostral
31
Know the three planes and all the directions associated with them
Horizontal plane:
- Rostral (front)
- Caudal (back)
- Medial (Middle)
- Lateral (sides)
Sagittal plane:
- dorsal (up)
- Ventral (down)
- Rostral (front/face)
- Caudal (back)
Coronal plane:
- dorsal (up)
- Ventral (down)
- Medial (Middle)
- Lateral (sides)
32
How is the human brain similar to the brains of other mammals?
Same structures, but each animal has a different ratio of each structure depending on the needs of that animal
33
Nuclei is in the ______, while ganglia is in the ______.
CNS; PNS
34
Tracts are in the ______, while nerves are in the ______.
CNS; PNS
35
What are the differences between neurons and glia?
Glial cells support the process of nerve cells, whereas neurons actually transport signals
36
How does experience affect the brain and in particularly neurons?
it affects neural plasticity and neurogenesis
37
Involve an exchange of ions (Na+/K+ exchange)
Pumps
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Passive and voltage gated, passage is dependent on diffusion and electrostatic pressure
Channels
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how do pumps and channels play a role in neural communication?
They both transport ions that can initiate action potential
40
Explain step by step how the synapse fires
1. Action potential comes through the presynaptic membrane
2. Depolarization leads to an influx of Calcium
3. Calcium causes the vesicles to fuse to the presynaptic membrane and release the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
4. neurotransmitters bind to receptors and cause ion channels to open, causing an inhibitory or excitatory response to spread toward the cell body
5. Synaptic cleft is cleared with help from reuptake and neurotransmitter digesting enzymes
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Chemicals released by a neuron, after an action potential, onto a target with an excitatory or an inhibitory effect
neurotransmitters
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a rapid change in the electrical charge across a cell membrane
action potential
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graded, localized voltage changes caused by neurotransmitter binding
post-synaptic potential
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chemicals produced outside of the body
ex. psychoactive drugs
exogenous chemicals
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chemicals produced inside of the body
endogenous chemicals
46
Examples of neurotransmitters
(1 ACh, 3 Monoamines, 2 Amino Acids)
Acetylcholine: motor, alertness, sleep, and cognition
Monoamines:
- Dopamine: motor movement and reward
- Norepinephrine: mood, "fight or flight"
- Serotonin: mood, sleep, feeding, arousal, and pain
Amino Acids:
- Glutamate: main excitatory NT in the nervous system
- GABA: main inhibitory NT in the nervous system
47
List all the types of neurotransmitters
Endogenous:
Acetylcholine, Monoamines, Amino acids, opioid peptides, gases
Exogenous:
Narcotics, Stimulants, Depressants, Marijuana, Hallucinogens/psychedelics
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slower response
metatrophic receptors
49
fast response, house ion channels
ionotrophic receptors
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mimics the NT and binds to the NT receptor, inducing the same effects as the NT would upon its binding with its receptor.
agonist
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binds to the NT receptor but blocks it, inhibiting the effect of the NT
antagonist
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Chemicals that, are secreted by an endocrine gland, travel through the bloodstream, regulate target organs or tissues via specific receptors
Hormones
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characterized by slow-wave sleep (SWS), moderate muscle tone, slow or absent eye movements, lack of genital activity, and dreams consisting of vague thoughts
Non-REM sleep
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characterized by EEG desynchrony, muscle atonia, rapid eye movements, penile erection of vaginal secretion, and vivid dreams. This sleep stage also has lengthening episodes as the night goes on
REM Sleep
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Refers to the fact that in REM sleep the brainwaves look similar if one was awake
Paradoxical Sleep
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stimulation induces sleep, lesioning induces insomnia; releases GABA that suppresses activity of the hypothalamus
Basal forebrain
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stimulation promotes wakefulness and alertness, lesioning induces constant sleep; activates the forebrain into wakefulness
Reticular formation
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promotes REM sleep and muscle atonia; inhibits motor neurons
Subcoeruleus
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enforces sleep patterns, lack of hormone causes narcolepsy
Hypocretin neurons in hypothalmus
60
True or False:
A regular night for a young adult look involves going from non-REM stage 1 to stage 2, to stage 3, to REM sleep, and then waking up in the morning.
False; a normal night involves moving from NREM stages to REM, but it is not that simple and often involves going into REM sleep, brief moments of awake, and then back to NREM. The REM stages get longer throughout the night.
61
Which is correct?
a. all animals have REM sleep
b. All animals spend the % of time in each sleep state
c. When preparing for an exam, its best to pull an all-nighter to study than to sleep
d. Sleep stages change as one grows
the answer is: *D*
a. not all animals have REM sleep, but it has been found in birds and mammals
b. the % of time an animal spends in each sleep state seems to differ widely between species
c. Sleep aids in memory consolidation, and there are negative effects associated with sleep deprivation, which is why more accidents happen during night shifts
d. TRUE! Young children need more sleep than older adults, and will spend more time in REM sleep. it also differs in regards to biological sex
62
What are the four theorized functions of sleep?
- Memory consolidation
- Energy conservation
- Niche adaptation (ex. predator avoidance)
- Body restoration (rise of GH during SWS)
These are not mutually exclusive!
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Inability to remain asleep or fall asleep
insomnia
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disorder in which respiration slows or stops in a person while sleeping
sleep apnea
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sudden arousal from NREM sleep, marked by fear and autonomic activity; NREM disorder
night terrors
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involuntary urination during sleep; NREM disorder
bedwetting
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long frightening dreams that awaken the sleeper; REM disorder
nightmares
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brief loss of muscle control while sleeping; REM disorder
sleep paralysis
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frequent bouts of sleep occurring during waking hours, also categorized by the sudden loss of muscle tone
narcolepsy; cataplexy
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process by which an ovum (egg) is fertilized by a sperm bearing an X or Y chromosome
sex determination
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process of becoming a male or female
sexual differentiation
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What are the 5 levels of sexual differentiation?
1. Chromosomal sex
2. Gonad Development/Sex
3. Hormonal Sex
4. Morphological Sex
5. Behavioral Sex
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This level of sexual determination is based on the SRY gene, or the sex determining region of Y chromosome
Chromosomal Sex
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If SRY gene is present, there is an expression of transcription factors and the germinal ridge forms testes; if the SRY gene is absent, germinal ridge forms ovaries
Gonadal Development/Sex
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Embryonic testes produce androgens (testosterone and AMH) and that triggers the male pathway; if there is a lack of androgens (embryonic ovaries or the absence of gonads) triggers the female pathway
Hormonal Sex
76
In males, testosterone stimulates the growth of _________, which eventually becomes the epididymis, seminal vesicles, vas deferens, and ejaculatory ducts and connects the testes to the penis. Due to this testosterone, ______ hormone is produced which causes the regression of the ducts associated with females.
Wolfian ducts; anti-mullerian
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In the absence of testosterone, _______ develop, which eventually become the fallopian tubes, uterus, and cervix, connecting the ovaries to the uterus. Due to the lack of testosterone, the ducts associated with males regress.
Müllerian ducts
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Males are exposed to T early in life and that organizes the
development of a “male” brain and inhibits the development of a “female” one; during adulthood the hormones are activational
The "organizational/activational" hypothesis
*Remember!!*
Organizational effects: permanent (puberty)
Activational effects: short-lived (musth in elephants)
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if aromatase is present, testosterone will be converted into estradiol (type of estrogen) which masculinizes the brain
Aromatization hypothesis
80
Why aren't the brains of females masculinized by maternal estrogens under the aromatization hypothesis?
It is prevented by alpha fetoprotein (αFP) which binds to estrogens coming from the mother and stops them from crossing the blood-brain barrier
81
____ and ______ is larger in males than in females. This is likely due to testosterone effects acting as neurotrophic factors
SDN-POA (copulatory behavior); SNB (Penile functions in rats)
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Develop as a female but lack normal ovaries so they never enter puberty and are infertile; generally short, broad chest, with visual and hearing problems, caused by a lack of a second chromosome (XO)
Turner Syndrome
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Adrenal glands produce high levels of androgens instead of cortisol which is problematic in females; both Müllerian and Wolfian ducts develop; this is due to exposure to progestins in the womb which can bind to testosterone receptors; involves partial masculinanization
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
84
XY chromosomes stimulate testes but a lack of 5α reductase stops the development of external genitalia; raised as girls until puberty when T raises dramatically
5α reductase deficiency (Also known as Gueva doce)
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Disorders where an individual has 3 or more chromosomes, resulting in abnormalities and learning disabilities
Trisonomic abnormalities
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Mutation in androgen receptors; affecting males, external genitalia develops as if it is female, but they also have testes, do not menstruate, have pubic hair, and are infertile
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)
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What are the four stages of reproductive behavior?
1. Sexual attraction
2. Appetitive behavior (to maintain or promote sexual interaction)
3. Copulation
4. Post-copulatory behavior
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What hormones are involved in copulation/reproductive behavior?
Androgens in males (such as testosterone); Estrogen and progesterone in females before ovulation
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When a mammal is "in heat"
estrus
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when a female animal curves its spine so its rear is in the air and its chest is near the ground to encourage and ease copulation
lordosis
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______ regulates male mounting behavior in rats, while ____ regulates the female lordosis behavior in rats through estrogen
mPOA; VMH
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extended estrous cycle length when rodents are housed as all females
Lee-Boot effect
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Acceleration and synchronization of cycle by presence of male or male cue within 48 hours in rats
Whitten effect
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pregnancy interruption (abortion or reabsorption of fetus) if exposed to "unfamiliar" male in rats
Bruce effect
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puberty delay if housed with all females, puberty acceleration if housed with all males in juvenile female mice
Vandenberg effect
96
introduction of a new female after copulation reduces the refractory period in mice
Coolidge effect
97
While (human) females experience _______, female mice experience ______.
menstruation; estrus/heat
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True or false?
Women are more likely to increase the effort they put into their appearance closer to their ovulation cycle
True
99
Characterized by:
increased cardiovascular tone; mobilization of energy; suppression of: digestion, growth, reproduction and immune system; amalgasia, and neural responses
Acute/adaptive stress
(most of these symptoms correlate with fight or flight response)
100
Characterized by:
Hypertension, fatigue, diabetes, ulcers, impaired growth, suppression of ovulation, impotency, impaired disease response, apathy, neural degeneration
Chronic/maladaptive stress
(most of these symptoms can be explained by having having the symptoms of acute stress for longer than the body can handle)
101
_____ and _____ (1) are the hormones involved with the stress response immediately after the stressor, and ____ (2) is the hormone involved with the stress response a few minutes after the stressor. This is because _________________.
Epinephrine and Norepinephine; glucocorticoids (GC); because there are two separate types of receptors, type I receptors have a high affinity for GC and type II receptors which have a low affinity for GC. GC can also cross the blood-brain barrier
102
Explain the HPA Axis and why it correlates with stress
Hypothalmus release "corticotropin release hormone" that trigger the Anterior Pituitary gland which releases "Adrenocorticotropic hormone" that trigger the Adrenal Cortex that releases "Cortisol" that has a negative feedback on the Anterior Pituitary and Hypothalmus. Its the stress response
103
Type I receptors for stress....
activate in the hippocampus lateral septum, brainstem, cortex, has high affinity for glucocorticoids
104
Type II receptors for stress...
have highest density in hippocampus, PCN, amygdala, septum, and has a low affinity for glucocorticoids
105
What hormone goes with what?
glucocorticoids: _____
cortisol: ____
Corticosterone: _____
CORT: _____
glucocorticoids: general
cortisol: primates (including humans), marsupials, swine, guinea pigs
Corticosterone: most rodents
CORT: Includes all of the above, used in studies to determine stress level but they can also study cardiovascular function like heart rate, BP, and skin conductance
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Rare syndrome found in infants that are reared in situations were there is little or no physical contact and high stress, child recovers mostly after getting more comfort
Psychosocial dwarfism
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Is there an effect with how sex and social environment can impact stress?
Yes!
Females have higher CORT when unstressed and stressed; People reporting high social stress have elevated morning cortisol
108
What are some effects of chronic stress?
- dendritic loss/atrophy
- Shrinking hippocampus (especially w/ PTSD)
- marks on the epigenome
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What are the three factors that influence response to stress?
1. Control (if you feel out of control, then you will likely have higher CORT levels)
2. Predictability (being able to mentally prepare for stress helps you manage it)
3. Having an outlet
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the process of acquiring new information, behavior, abilities
learning
111
the loss of memories formed before a brain injury or brain damage
retrograde amnesia
112
the inability to form new memories after an onset of a disorder, brain damage, or brain injury
anterograde amnesia
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memory that lasts up to 30 seconds or through out rehearsal, goes through encoding
Short-term memory (STM)/working memory
114
memory that lasts days to years, that goes through encoding and consolidation
Long-term memory (LTM)
115
things you know that you can tell others. includes episodic and semantic
declarative memory
116
things you know that you can show by doing. includes skill learning, priming, and conditioning
nondeclarative memory
117
what 5 areas are involved in consolidating declarative memories?
hippocampus*, amygdala, cortical areas of the temporal lobe, dorsal thalamus, and mammillary
*extremely important
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what 5 (proposed) areas are involved in consolidating nondeclarative memories?
basal ganglia, ventral thalamus, substancia nigra, cerebellum, motor cortex
(this is proposed, there is still uncertainty)
119
detailed autobiographical memory
episodic memory (under declarative memory)
120
generalized memory (1982 was when Cristopher Colombus came to America)
semantic memory (under declarative memory)
121
Explain what happened to patient H.M.
removal of medial temporal lobe; severe anterograde amnesia and graded retrograde amnesia; non-declarative memory was still intact as he showed that he could learn skills, he just wouldn't remember learning them
122
cause by a lack of vitamin B, linked with chronic alcoholism, damage to mammillary bodies; characterized by both retrograde and anterograde amnesia; helps explain the declarative circuitry
Korsakoff's syndrome
123
a stable and enduring increase in the effectiveness of synapses; reliance on ______ and _____ receptors
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
glutamate; NMDA glutamate receptors
124
a lack of enrichment leads to ____ in the ____
lack of neurogenesis in the hippocampus
125
contains descriptions, symptoms and other criteria for diagnosis mental disorders
DSM-5-TR (last published in 2022)
126
Symptoms:
low self esteem, anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure), lack of appetite, anger, self-injury, sleep problems, psychomotor retardation (difficulty initiating activity)
Brain changes:
increased blood flow to amygdala and PFC, size reduction in hippocampus, higher levels of cortisol in HPA axis
Sex difference:
More prevalent in women than in men
Major depression
127
Symptoms: changes from symptoms similar to major depression to states where anything seems possible, with increased motivation, self-esteem, and energy
Brain changes:
Characterized by enlarged ventricles and changes in limbic structure
Sex difference:
Equally affects men and women
Bipolar disorder
128
Symptoms:
reoccurring panic states
Brain changes:
can be seen as an imbalance with norepinephrine, or with a strong limbic system or amygdala
Sex difference:
more common in females
Anxiety disorder
129
Symptoms:
anxiety disorder that results from a traumatic experience
Brain changes:
Right hippocampus is smaller, PFC shows decreased activity and amygdala shows increased activity
Sex difference:
Females are more likely to meet criteria
PTSD
130
Symptoms:
Two sets of symptoms, positive and negative.
Pos: hallucinations, delusions, bizarre behaviors
Neg: social withdrawal, reduced motivation flat affect, alogic
Brain changes:
Enlargement of ventricles, changes in frontal lobe, hippocampus cells are fewer and disorganized
Sex difference:
Males are affected at an earlier age than females
Schizophrenia
131
allow NTTs to stay in the synapse and exert their effects for longer periods of time by blocking MAO
MAO inhibitors
132
blocks reuptake of serotonin; may take weeks to exert full effects; associated with an increase risk of suicide in children and adolecence
SSRIs
133
procedure that cuts connections between frontal cortex and rest of the brain; used to treat depression, schizophrenia, and unruly behavior
prefrontal lobotomies
134
a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meaning
language
135
What is the evidence for critical periods of language?
- Feral children have permanent limitations in language development
- Brain regions for Second languages differ depending at what age it is learned
- all languages have many structural elements in common (syntax)
- mutation in FOXP2 gene delays learning to speak
136
Which areas of the brain are used in language?
Left hemisphere:
- Broca's area: language production (lesions cause nonfluent aphasia where the ind. can understand but struggles to find the words to speak)
- Wernickes area: language comprehension (lesions cause fluent aphasia where ind. can speak fine, but sentances have no meaning)
- Arcuate fasciculus: connects Broca's and Wernicke's area (lesions cause global aphasia where all aspects of language are damaged)
Right hemisphere:
- deals with prosody (rhythm) and pragmatics
