Exam 3 Flashcards
(158 cards)
1
Q
Nervous vs Endocrine
A
Nervous
- Neurotransmitters
- Close site of action
- Target cells: muscle, glands, neurons
- Onset and duration of action: Milliseconds
Endocrine
- Hormones
- Far site of action
- Target cells throughout the body
- Onset and duration of action: seconds to hours to days
2
Q
Endocrine vs Exocrine Glands
A
Endocrine: Secrete hormones into the interstitial fluid then diffuse into bloodstream
- pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal
Exocrine: Secrete nonhormones into ducts emptying on a surface covering
- sudoriferous, sebaceous, mucous, digestive
3
Q
Unicellular Exocrine Gland
A
Goblet cells, produce mucin to create mucus
4
Q
Unicellular Endocrine Gland
A
G cells in the stomach, secretes gastrin
5
Q
When are receptors up-regulated vs. down-regulated
A
Down-regulated in high concentration of hormones, up-regulated in low concentration of hormones
6
Q
Paracrines
A
Local hormones that do not circulate, go to nearby target cells
7
Q
Autocrines
A
Hormones that act on the same cell that secretes them
8
Q
Responses to hormones
A
Synthesis of new molecules
Changing permeability of cell membrane
Stimulating transport of substances in or out of the cell
Altering rate of metabolic actions
Cause smooth or cardiac muscle contractions
9
Q
Lipid Soluble Hormones
A
Use transport protein to travel in the blood, exits bloodstream and diffuses into cell, binds to receptors in the nucleus, alters gene expression, mRNA makes proteins, proteins alter cell activity
ex: steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, nitric oxide
10
Q
Water Soluble Hormones
A
Travel freely in the bloodstream, binds to receptor and activates G protein, G protein activates Adenylyl cyclase to convert ATP into cAMP, cAMP activates protein kinases, protein kinases use phosphate from ATP to phosphorylate proteins, phosphorylated proteins cause reactions
ex: amine hormones, peptide/protein hormones, eicosanoid hormones
11
Q
Example of Antagonistic Hormones
A
Insulin - decreases blood glucose
Glucagon - increases blood glucose
12
Q
Infundibulum (in context of Endocrine)
A
Connects the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
13
Q
Anterior vs Posterior Pituitary
A
Anterior - endocrine based
Posterior - neural based
14
Q
Growth Hormone
A
Anterior Pituitary Hormone
Stimulates liver, muscle, bone, connective tissue growth
Acts directly on target cells to enhance lipolysis and decrease glucose uptake
15
Q
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
A
Anterior Pituitary Hormone
Stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland, which will regulate cellular metabolism
16
Q
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (in context of Endocrine)
A
Anterior Pituitary Hormone
Initiates oogenesis and spermatogenesis, in females oogenesis causes estrogen secretion, which preserves bone density
17
Q
Luteinizing Hormone (in context of Endocrine)
A
Anterior Pituitary Hormone
Females - stimulates secretion of estrogen and progesterone, causes ovulation and formation of corpus luteum
Males - stimulates testes to produce testosterone
18
Q
Prolactin
A
Anterior Pituitary Hormone
Promotes milk production by mammary glands, NOT secretion
19
Q
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
A
Anterior Pituitary Hormone
Stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids like cortisol (stress hormone) by the adrenal cortex
20
Q
Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone (MSH)
A
Anterior Pituitary Hormone
Produces pigmentation of the skin when activated by UV light, suppresses appetite and contributes to sexual arousal
21
Q
Production and Storing of Oxytocin and ADH
A
Produced by the Hypothalamus, Stored in the Posterior Pituitary Gland
22
Q
Oxytocin
A
Released in response to stretch of cervix during childbirth
“Love hormone”
Enhances contractions of uterus
Stimulates ejection of milk in response to suckling
23
Q
Thyroid Gland Location
A
Inferior to larynx, anterior to trachea
24
Q
Thyroid Gland Cells
A
Follicular Cells - stimulated by TSH (Anterior Pituitary Hormone) to produce thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which regulate cellular metabolism
Parafollicular Cells - produce calcitonin to regulate calcium homeostasis
25
Thyroid Hormone Functions
Help maintain body temperature (by regulating cellular metabolism)
Stimulate protein synthesis (to do work)
Increase the use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP production
Worth with hGH and insulin to accelerate body growth
26
Thyroid Hormone Control of Secretion and Principal Actions
TRH stimulates TSH which stimulates T3 and T4 production, typically in response to low thyroid hormone levels, low metabolic rate, cold, pregnancy, and high altitudes
Increases basal metabolic rate, stimulate protein synthesis, increase ATP production, accelerate body growth, contribute to nervous system development
27
Calcitonin Control of Secretion and Principal Actions
High blood calcium stimulates Calcitonin secretion
Inhibits bone resorption by osteoclasts and accelerates uptake of calcium and phosphates to lower calcium blood levels
28
Types of Parathyroid Cells
Chief cells - produce parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to low blood calcium
Oxyphil Cells - secrete excess PTH in cases of parathyroid cancer
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Adrenal Gland Regions
Cortex
zona glomerulosa - Mineralocorticoids
zona fasciculata - Glucocorticoids
zona reticularis - Androgens
Medulla - Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
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Mineralocorticoids
Increase blood levels of Na+ and water, decrease blood level of K+
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Glucocorticoids
Stimulated by ACTH
Upregulate genetic expression of anti-inflammatory proteins, regulates blood glucose levels by stimulating gluconeogenesis and lipolysis
32
Androgens
Stimulated by ACTH
Assist in axillary and pubic hair growth; in females, contribute to libido and are source of estrogens after menopause
33
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system
Increases heart rate and blood flow to muscle, increase breathing rate, cause bronchodilation
NE = blood vessels
E = heart
34
What type of gland is the pancreas
Both exocrine and endocrine
35
Pancreas Cells
Acini - clusters that produce digestive enzymes
Alpha Cells - glucagon
Beta Cells - insulin
Delta Cells - somatostatin
F Cells - pancreatic polypeptide
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Glucagon
Raise blood glucose by accelerating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
Secreted by alpha cells of pancreas
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Insulin
Lower blood glucose levels by accelerating glycogenesis, increasing lipogenesis, and stimulating protein synthesis
Secreted by beta cells of pancreas
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Somatostatin
Inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon, slows absorption of nutrients from GI tract
- regulate digestion and glucose homeostasis
Secreted by delta cells of pancreas
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Pancreatic Polypeptide
Inhibits somatostatin secretion, causes gallbladder contraction and secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes
Secreted by F cells of pancreas
40
Diabetes Mellitus and 2 types
Chronic high blood glucose
Type 1: autoimmune disease where beta cells are destroyed, causing little insulin secretion
Type 2: insulin resistance prevents cells from responding to insulin
41
Pineal Gland
Attached to the roof of the third ventricle of the brain and secretes melatonin - regulates body's biological clock
42
Thymus
Produces thymosin, thymic humoral factor (THF), thymic factor (TF), and thymopoietin
Promotes the maturation of immune system T cells (help fight specific pathogens)
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Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)
Produced in salivary glands, stimulates proliferation of epithelial cells, neurons, and neuroglia, suppresses cancer cells and secretion of gastric juice by stomach
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Platelet-derived Growth Factor (PDGF)
Produced in blood platelets; stimulates proliferation of neuroglia, smooth muscle fibers and fibroblasts; appears to have a role in wound healing
45
Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF)
Found in pituitary gland and brain; stimulates proliferation of smooth muscle fibers, chondrocytes, and endothelial cells; stimulates formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis)
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Nerve Growth Factor (NGF)
Produced in salivary glands and hippocampus of brain; stimulates growth of ganglia in embryo, maintains sympathetic nervous system; stimulates hypertrophy and differentiation of neurons
*embryonic development
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Tumor Angiogenesis Factors (TAF)
Produced by tumor cells; stimulate growth of new capillaries (to keep tumor alive), organ regeneration, and wound healing
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2 types of Stress
Eustress - everyday stress
Distress - harmful stress
1. Fight or flight response
2. Resistance reaction
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Gigantism and Acromegaly
Excess secretion of growth hormone, causes overgrowth of hands, face, feet
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Goiter
Enlargening of thyroid gland, caused by reduction or overproduction of thyroid hormone, causes difficulty breathing and swallowing
51
Hypothyroidism
Develops due to insufficient TH, causes depression, weight gain, cold intolerance
52
Graves Disease
Develops due to excess thyroid hormone, causes irritability, muscle weakness, heat intolerance
*protruding eyes
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Cushing's Syndrome
Caused by excess secretion of glucocorticoids, causes abdominal obesity, weak muscles and bones, fragile skin that heals slowly
*butterfly rash, skin infections, buffalo lump
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Scrotum
sac of loose skin and underlying subcutaneous tissue that contains the testes
regulates temperature of testes by bringing closer or farther away from the body with Dartos and Cremaster muscle
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Testes
paired, oval glands in the scrotum partially covered by the tunica vaginalis
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Seminiferous Tubules
carry sperm produced within them out of the testes
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High vs. Low Testosterone
Low - low sperm production
High - shriveled testes that do not work well
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Process of Spermatogenesis
Spermatogonium (D)
- Differentiation
Primary Spermatocyte (D)
- Meiosis I
Secondary Spermatocytes (H)
- Meiosis II
Spermatids
Spermatozoa
*driven by testosterone, all genetically different for genetic diversity
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Leydig (interstitial) Cell Function
Produce testosterone, stimulated by LH
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Blood-Testis Barrier
Regulate what diffuses into testis, ensures that father will not pass on bad genetic mutations
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Sperm
Head with nucleus containing 23 chromosomes
Acrosome containing enzymes to help with penetration
Middle Piece with mitochondria for ATP production
Principal Piece and End Piece make up tail
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LH function in males
Stimulates interstitial cells to produce testosterone
Testosterone stimulates spermatogenesis or becomes dihydrotestosterone
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FSH in males
Stimulates spermatogenesis
64
Effects of Testosterone and Dihydrotestosterone
Prenatal development
Male sexual characteristics (muscle, facial hair, lower voice)
Development of sexual function
Stimulation of anabolism
65
Epididymis
Place where sperm matures and degenerated sperm is reabsorbed
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Path of Sperm
Seminiferous tubules, rete testis, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra
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Seminal Vesicles
Secrete alkaline, viscous fluid containing fructose, prostaglandins (prevents inflammatory response in female system) and proteins
Nourishes the sperm cells
68
Prostate Gland
Secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid containing citric acid, enzymes and acid phosphatase
Helps sperm motility
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Bulbourethral Gland
Secretes an alkaline fluid during sexual arousal that neutralizes acids from urine
70
Penis
Passageway for semen and urine
Composed of 2 corpora cavernosa, 1 corpus spongiosum, Glans penis (head), prepuce (foreskin)
71
Ovaries
Paired glands homologous to testes
Produce gametes, progesterone, estrogens, inhibin, relaxin
72
Ovary Components
Germinal Epithelium - covers surface
Tunica albuginea - dense irregular connective tissue
Ovarian Cortex - ovarian follicles and stromal cells (maintain cortex structure)
Ovarian Medulla - connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves
73
Uterine Tubes
Extend from uterus to ovary, pathway for sperm to reach ovum
Fimbriae, Infundibulum, Ampulla, Isthmus
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Uterine Tube Layers and Components
Mucosa, muscularis, serosa
Cilia - move fertilized ovum towards uterus
Peg Cells - secrete fluid to provide nourishment for ovum
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Layers of the Uterus
Perimetrium
Myometrium
- 3 layers of smooth muscle for pushing
Endometrium
- stratum functionalis (contains endometrial glands)
- stratum basalis
76
Uterus Arteries
Uterine Arteries
Arcuate Arteries
- myometrium
Radial Arteries
- myometrium
Straight Arterioles
- stratum basalis
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Vagina
Fibromuscular canal lines with mucus that extends from the body's exterior to the cervix, ruggae for pleasure
78
Hymen
Fold of vascularized mucus membrane that partially closes the inferior end of the vagina
79
Vulva Components
Mons Pubis, Labia minora and majora, Clitoris, Vestibule (hymen, vaginal orifice, external urethral orifice, openings of ducts of several glands)
80
Paraurethral Glands
Secretes mucus and are embedded in the wall of the urethra (homologous to prostate)
81
Greater Vestibular Glands
Produce mucus during sexual arousal to provide lubrication (homologous to bulbourethral)
82
Vestibular Bulb
Two masses of erectile tissue that engorges during sexual arousal to narrow vaginal orifice applying pressure to the penis during intercourse
Homologous to the erectile tissues of the penis
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Estrogen
Promotes development and maintenance of female reproductive structures and secondary sex characteristics
Increase protein anabolism
Lower blood cholesterol
Stimulate proliferation of stratum basalis to form a new stratum functionalis after menstruation
Moderate levels inhibit release of GnRH, FSH, and LH
84
Inhibin
Inhibits release of FSH if follicle is mature
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Relaxin
Inhibits contractions of uterine smooth muscle to receive ovum properly
During labor, increases flexibility of pubic symphysis and dilates cervix
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Progesterone
Stimulates endometrial glands to secrete glycogen and lipids, which will serve as an initial nutrient source for a fertilized egg if implantation occur
High levels inhibits release of GnRH, FSH, and LH
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Stages of Ovarian Cycle
Follicular, Ovulation, Luteal
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Stages of Uterine Cycle
Menstruation, Proliferative, Secretory
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Vasectomy
used in males by removing a portion of the vas deferens
90
Tubal Ligation
use in females to tie closed and then cut the uterine (Fallopian) tubes
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Non-incisional sterilization
insertion of a coil made of plastic and metal into each uterine tube then scar tissue grows and blocks the tubes
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Hormonal Birth Control
Oral contraceptives that prevent pregnancy by inhibiting ovulation (with progestin, similar to progesterone) or thickening cervical mucous
93
Intrauterine Devises
Can contain hormones or copper, both of which can be toxic to sperm
94
Fertilization
Merging of genetic information from haploid sperm and haploid secondary oocyte
Sperm must penetrate corona radiata, zona pellucida
Membrane proteins in the sperm head bind to ZP3 receptor, acrosomal enzymes digest path in zona pellucida
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Cleavage
Mitotic division of the zygote after fertilization
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Blastomere
Zygote cell that results from cleavage
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Morula
16-cell zygote, appears are cluster of cells surrounded by the zona pellucida
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Blastocyst
32-cell stage zygote, formed after being nourished by uterine milk
Has embryoblast and trophoblast
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Embryoblast
Inner cell mass of the blastocyst that will develop into the embryo
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Trophoblast
Outer cell mass that will develop into the outer chorionic sac surrounding the fetus, and the fetal portion of the placenta (nourishing structures)
101
Bilaminar Embryonic Disc
Developed from the embryoblast
Consists of hypoblast (yolk sac lining for nutrient transfer) and epiblast (becomes the germ layers of the embryo - tissues)
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Chorion
Surrounds the embryo
Blocks antibody production by the mother
Promotes production of T lymphocytes to suppress the immune response in the uterus
Produces human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) - hormone tested for in pregnancy tests
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Stimulation
Any event that triggers a specific physiological reaction in an organ or tissue
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Transduction
Process of converting a sensory signal into an electrical nerve signal processes by the CNS
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Sensation
The conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the external or internal environment
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Perception
The conscious interpretation of sensations performed mainly by the cerebral cortex
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General senses
Somatic: tactile, thermal, proprioception
Visceral: pressure, chemicals, stretch, nausea, hunger, temperature
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Special Senses
Smell, taste, vision, hearing, equilibrium
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Free vs Encapsulated Nerve Endings
Free: pain, temperature, tickle, itch, some touch
Encapsulated: pressure, vibration, some touch
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Classifications of Microscopic Structure
Free Nerve endings: Bare dendrites associated with pain, thermal tickle, itch, some touch
Encapsulated Nerve Endings: Dendrites enclosed in connective tissue capsule for pressure, vibration, and some touch
Separate Cells: Receptor cell synapse with first-order sensory neurons; located in retina of eye (photoreceptors), inner ear (hair cells), and taste buds of tongue (gustatory receptor cells)
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Classifications of Receptor Location and Activating Stimuli
Exteroceptors: Located at or near body surface; sensitive to stimuli originating outside body, provide information about external environment; convey visual, smell, taste, touch, pressure vibration, thermal, and pain sensations
Interoceptors: Located in organs; provide information about internal environment: body temperature, blood pressure, hunger, thirst, pain, pressure, etc.
Proprioceptors: Located in muscles, tendons, joints; provide information about body position, muscle length and tension, position and motion of joints, and equilibrium (balance)
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Classification of Type of Stimulus Detected
Mechanoreceptors: Detect mechanical stimuli; provide sensations of touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception, and hearing and equilibrium; also monitor stretching of blood vessels and internal organs
Thermoreceptors: Detect changes in temperature
Nociceptors: Respond to painful stimuli resulting from physical or chemical damage to tissue
Photoreceptors: Detect light that strikes the retina of the eye
Chemoreceptors: Detect chemicals in mouth (taste), nose (smell), and body fluids
Osmoreceptors: Detect blood plasma osmolarity (drives thirst)
113
Muscle Spindles
Proprioceptor found in skeletal muscles that monitors muscle length and are involved in stretch reflexes
114
Tendon Organs
Proprioceptor found at the junction of a tendon and a muscle, that protects muscles and tendons from damage due to overstretching
115
Joint Kinesthetic Receptors
Exist in and around the joint capsule of synovial joints and they respond to pressure, acceleration, and deceleration during movement and help to protect against excessive strain
116
Meissner Corpuscles
Onset of touch and low-frequency vibrations
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Hair Root Plexuses
Movements on skin surface that disturb hairs
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Tactile Discs
Continuous touch and pressure
119
Ruffini Corpuscles
Skin stretching and pressure
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Pancinian Corpuscles
High-frequency vibrations
121
Itch and tickle receptors
Itching and tickling
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First Order Neurons
Impulses from somatic receptors to the brain stem or spinal cord
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Second Order Neurons
Impulses from the brain stem and spinal cord to the thalamus
124
Third Order Neurons
Impulses from the thalamus to the primary somatosensory area of the cortex on the same side
125
Dorsal column-medial lemniscus (DMCL) pathway
3 Orders of Neurons
Touch, vibration, proprioception, pressure from limbs, trunk, neck, posterior head
Lesion can lead to loss of vibration and joint sense, ataxia
126
Spinothalamic Pathway
3 Orders of Neurons
Pain, temperature, itch, tickle
127
Spinoreticular Pathway
4 Orders of Neurons
Passes through reticular formation to the thalamus
Pain, alertness, arousal to painful stimuli
128
Spinotectal Pathway
3 Orders of Neurons
Terminates in superior and inferior colliculi (tectal plate) of the midbrain
Visual reflexes due to pain, temperature, tactile
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Trigeminothalamic Pathway
3 Orders of Neurons
Sensations from face, nasal cavity, oral cavity, teeth
Touch, proprioception, pain, temperature
130
Olfactory Receptor Cells
Transmit smell information once odorants bind to receptors on olfactory cilia (increase surface area)
131
(Olfactory) Supporting Cells
Located in mucous lining of the nose, used for physical support and nourishment for receptor cells
132
Basal Stem Cells
Undergo mitosis to replace olfactory cells
*not yet functional
133
Olfactory Glands
Produce mucus that is used to dissolve odor molecules so that transduction may occur
134
Olfactory Transduction
Odorant Molecule binds to receptor protein
G protein activates adenylyl cyclase
Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
cAMP activates cation channel
Sodium and Calcium flows into cell and causes depolarization
Action potential travels to primary olfactory area and orbitofrontal cortex for odor identification
135
Vallate Papillae
About 12 that contain 100-300 taste buds, back of tongue
136
Foliate Papillae
Lateral trenches of the tongue, most degenerate in early childhood
137
Fungiform Papillae
Scattered over the tongue with about 5 taste buds each
138
Filiform Papillae
Cover entire surface of the tongue
Contain tactile receptors but no taste buds
Increase friction to make it easier for the tongue to move food within the mouth
*feel texture of food
139
Facial (VII) Nerve
Carries taste information from the anterior 2/3 of the tongue
140
Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve
Carries taste information from the posterior 1/3 of the tongue
141
Vagus (X) Nerve
Carries taste information from taste buds on the epiglottis and in the throat
142
Palpebral Muscles vs Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Control eyelid movement (moistens the eyes)
Move eyeball
143
Conjunctiva
Thin, protective mucous membrane that lines the eyelids and covers the sclera
(Mucin layer of tear film)
144
Lacrimal Glands
Secrete tears that lubricate the eyes
(Aqueous layer of tear film)
145
Tarsal Glands
Sebaceous glands that secrete meibum which prevents evaporation of tear film
(Lipid layer of tear film)
146
Two tunics of Eyeball
Fibrous Tunic (Cornea, Sclera)
Vascular Tunic (Choroid, Ciliary Body, Iris)
147
Cornea
Transparent anterior portion of eye "anterior 1/6"
148
Sclera
Opaque white portion of the eye "posterior 5/6'
149
Choroid
Darkly-pigmented (from melanocytes) membrane that prevents scattering of light rays inside the eye
150
Ciliary Body
Thickened tissue that encircles lens and shapes lens
*focuses light
151
Iris
Controls size of the opening in the eye (pupil) based on nervous system
*controls amount of light entering eye
152
Retina
Thin membrane that lines the posterior three-quarters of the inner layer of the eyeball
153
Optic Disc
Point at which the optic nerve exits the eye (blind spot)
154
Fovea Centralis
Center of the retina, area of highest visual acuity (best vision)
155
Pathway of Photoreceptor Signals
Photoreceptor
Bipolar Cells
Ganglion Cells
Axons of Ganglion Cells form Optic (II) Nerve
156
Rods
See in dim light
- Photopigment: rhodopsin
157
Cones
See in bright light, produce color vision
- Photopigments: red, green, blue
158
Lens
Changes in shape to allow images to focus on the retina (fovea centralis)
Images are inverted and right-left reversed due to refraction
Flattens for distant vision, bulges for close vision
