Exotics 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What are 6 differences between reptile and mammal eyes
A
- Straited muscles of the iris, not smooth ○ Conscious control over pupil size ○ Need to use different drugs - Cartilaginous septum between eyes - Conus papillaris - Pupil shape variations - Parietal eye - Harderian gland (in all reptiles)
2
Q
Lizard eyes what are the 2 different structures can have, function and 2 other structures in the eye
A
- The spectacle (eye cap, skin or scale that covers the eyes - fused eyelids) in most geckos
§ Sheds with the skin - important
§ Protects the cornea - Upper eyelids immobile and short, lower eyelids close the eye (in those that have eyelids)
- Rigid third eyelid
- Scleral ossicles
3
Q
Snake eye what structure present, function, shedding, is there a lacrimal gland
A
- Spectacle
○ The glands excrete into the space between the cornea and the spectacle and fluid drains down through nasolacrimal ducts
○ It becomes cloudy just before ecdysis (shedding of the skin in reptiles) (Harderian gland) - no lacrimal glands - don’t need as have a spectacle
4
Q
What are 9 important environmental considerations for skin in reptiles
A
- Sharp or abrasive furnishings and substrates
- Water quality
- Humidity
- Companions
- UVB
- Mites
- Escape attempts
- Hygiene
- Biosecurity
5
Q
List 8 specific clinical signs for eye issues in reptiles
A
- Swelling of eyelids
- Blepharitis
- Conjunctivitis
- Ocular discharges
- Discolouration of globe
- Epiphora
- Nasal discharge
- Eyelids can’t open - may need to bathe in warm water - DO NOT FORCE OPEN
6
Q
List 6 non-specific clinical signs for eye issues in reptiles
A
- Light sensitive
- Rubbing at face
- Can’t target food items
- Reluctant to eat
- Reluctant to move
- Hiding
7
Q
List 9 causes for swelling of reptile eyelids
A
- Hypovitaminosis A in chelonians
○ Hyperkeratosis, swollen eyes, digestive issues - Blepharitis and conjunctivitis
○ Usually hygiene and foreign body related - Foreign material/trauma
- Viral (pox/herpes)
- Bacterial (primary/secondary to sepsis)
- Periocular masses
○ Unilateral - Neoplasia
- parasitic
- caseous abscess formation (tend to be harder than mammalian)
8
Q
What are 6 main causes of ocular discharge
A
- Dacryocystitis
- Hypovitaminosis A
- Bacterial conjunctivitis
- Foreign bodies - common
- Epiphora due to blocked duct or irritated conjunctiva
- Corneal ulceration - IF DON’T HAVE A SPECTACLE
○ Stain with fluorescein
○ Infection
○ Trauma
○ Lipid deposits
9
Q
What are 6 main issues that can arise of the spectacle
A
- Opacity prior to ecdysis (shedding)
- Retained spectacle due to dysecdysis (when haven’t shed properly -> lack of humidity or lack of abrasive items to rub against)
- Bullous spectaculopathy -> accumulation of clear fluid in Subspectacular space that presents as a bulging of spectacle
○ Aspirate to determine the cause but give pain relief as well - Subspectacular abscess
- Retrobulbar abscess
- Trauma
10
Q
What are 5 main opthalmic disorders of reptiles and 5 main systemic diseases that can lead to this
A
Other ophthalmic disorders 1. Uveitis 2. Hypopyon 3. Cataracts 4. Glaucoma difficult to determine 5. Anopthalmus/micropt halmus Systemic diseases contributing to ophthalmic pathology 1. Stomatitis - inflammation in the mouth 2. Rhinitis - respiratory disease 3. Malnutrition 4. Septicaemia 5. Any diseases causing dehydration or reduced healing
11
Q
What is important to consider with reptile eye/skin treatment and list 7 general things to do
A
- Be gentle, need to be in optimal temperature to heal
1. Topical - Wet swabs over the surface of the eyes
2. Surgical
3. Systemic
4. Flushing
5. Warm wet compresses to open eyelids
6. Soaking/bathing/humidity increase -> for retained spectacles
7. Husbandry can always be improved
12
Q
What is turtle shell made of and what important to remember and reptile connective tissue how much elastin
A
- Osteoderm/dermal bone - in turtles
○ Shell -> active live skin with bone -> DON’T DRILL THE BONE - Connective tissue (variable elastin)
○ Scales aren’t very elastic but the skin between the scales are
13
Q
Reptile skin anatomy what are 7 important factors/structures/functions
A
- Barrier to abrasion, desiccation, UV, damage, impermeable to pathogens
- Variable water permeability - generally better than mammals
- Glands - scent, lipid
- Locomotion - gastropeds -> the scales on the dorsum that help to move in snakes
- Horns, bristles - sensory and defense
- heat sensing pits
- Mite pockets
14
Q
ecdysis what is it, how works, what is important while occuring
A
- New layer grows under old ones
- Inner layer of old skin dissolved and lymph infiltrates to separate the old from the new
- More sensitive to toxins and damage while shedding
- Spectacle needs to shed at the same time
15
Q
What are 14 important things to ask for with history for reptiles
A
- Temperature
- Relative humidity
- Substrate - too wet or abrasive
- Furnishings
- Burrows
- Hygiene
- Water quality
- Filtration - ventilation equivalent for aquariums
- UV type and strength
- New introductions
- Visits by friends
- Feeding of live prey
- Diet
Supplements
16
Q
What is important to consider with feeding of live prey and what clinical signs can you see with turtles
A
- if sick or don’t want to eat the live prey can eat the predator
• Even with turtles -> feeder fish too big for turtle -> generally lose toes in this case
17
Q
What are the 4 main types of clinical signs for reptile skin disorders
A
- Degenerative (ulcers, slipping skin, fissures, thinning)
- Proliferative (papillomatous, hyperkeratotic, neoplastic)
- Colour and textural changes
- Writhing, skin, rubbing, scratching, bathing, basking
18
Q
What is involved with the examination and diagnosis of skin conditions in reptiles
A
- History before handling
○ Trying to push through vents, basking more or less, sitting in water bowl for snakes -> might have mites - Examine from a distance
- Pruritis, eyes closed limbs abducted, breathing noises - Photographic documentation and magnification
- Periphery of tails, digits, scutes
- Wet swabs and smear
- Scrape, aspirate, culture, biopsy
- Blood tests, xrays
19
Q
What are 7 common non-infectious skin conditions of reptiles
A
1. Trauma ○ Bites (prey/companion) ○ Substrate/furniture ○ Abrasions ○ Escape attempts ○ Baytril injections -> dilution as can cause ulcers § Not the only antibiotics 2. Burns - heat/chemical 3. Neoplasia 4. Diet ○ Ca/vitD/UVB/Temp ○ hyperVit D ○ Gout 5. Water quality 6. Blisters/bullae ○ Excessive humidity ○ Wet substrate 7. Excessive UV exposure
20
Q
What are 7 common skin infectious conditions
A
1. Abscesses ○ Fibrous and caseous - hard ○ Mycobacterium ○ Opportunists 2. Dermatitis (scale rot) ○ Bacterial, fungal, ectoparasitic 3. Viral 4. Ulcerative ○ Bacterial/fungal 5. Sepsis resulting in skin lesions 6. Cellulitis/sinuses 7. Extension of stomatitis ○ Common in lizards and turtles ○ LOOK IN THE MOUTH
21
Q
What are 5 common skin conditions of pythons
A
1. Mites ○ Ophinoyssus natricis 2. Trauma ○ Burns, bites from prey, escape attempts, co-feeding, handling 3. Scale rot ○ Ventral dermatitis 4. Blister disease ○ Humidity too high/wet substrate ○ Burns ○ Migrating nematodes 5. Dysecdysis ○ Systemic disease ○ Vivarium set up ○ Overhandling
22
Q
What are the 6 main common skin conditions of lizards
A
1. Trauma ○ Bites/burns 2. Dermatitis secondary to poor husbandry 3. Dysecdysis ○ Humidity too low ○ Systemic disease, scars 4. Ticks 5. Malnutrition ○ Vitamin D deficiency 6. Fungal infections ○ Yellow fungal infection - crysosporium anamorph of nanizziopsis varesii (CANV)
23
Q
What are the 4 main skin conditions of turtles
A
1. Shell rot ○ Water quality/diet/UV 2. Oedema 3. Scale and carapace deformities ○ Malnutrition/injuries 4. Trauma ○ Co-inhabitants ○ Tank design ○ Gardening injuries
24
Q
What are the 4 main areas of treatment for reptile skin and examples within
A
- Surgical
○ Excise, debride or repair lesion if possible
○ Epoxy resin/wires/plates/ for dermal bone - Systemic
○ Antibiotics/pain relief - Topical
○ Flushing wounds
○ Antiparasitics (care, all can be toxic. No IVERMECTINS in turtles)
○ Dressings
Few products registered for use in reptiles - Environmental
○ Remove the cause
○ Parasite control
Review husbandry
25
What are important factors in prevention of reptile skin conditions
```
○ Correct POTZ range
○ Appropriate heat source and UVB type for species
○ Furnishings to assist ecdysis
○ Safe stocking rates
○ Dedicated hygiene
§ Cleaning substrate
§ Ventilation
§ Filtration
○ Quarantine and mite prevention
○ Balanced diet and supplements appropriate to species
```
26
How many mammary gland paris are present in rabbits, ferrets, guinea pigs, rats and mice
```
Rabbits -> 4
Ferrets -> 4
Guinea pigs -> 1
Rats -> 6
mice -> 5
```
27
Rabbits what is special about skin
- Fastidious and mutual groomers
- Seasonal moult
- Females line nest with hair
- Glands under chin and inguinal pockets
- Haired pinnae
- Two areas in ears to examine
- No foot pads
28
Ferrets what is special about their skin
- Very thick skin!
- Seasonal alopecia
- Haired pinnae
- +++ sebaceous glands
- 2x perianal scent glands
29
Guinea pigs what is special about their skin
- Short, long, whorled hair
- Glands over the rump and around the anus
- Non-haired pinnae
- Need dietary vitamin C
30
Rabbit what are the 4 main ectoparasites, clinical signs and diagnosis/treatment for all
1) Fur mite – Cheyletiella parasitovorax - waling dandruff, mild pruritis and alopecia
2) Fur mite – Leporacarus gibbus - salt and pepper look
3) Ear mite – Psoroptes cuniculi - crusty exudate in ear, intensely pruritic and painful
4) Rabbit fleas (and cat and dog fleas) - pruritis
Dx -> sticky tape prep
Tx -> selamcentin (revolution) - advantage for flea
NO FIBRONIL IN RABBITS
31
Guinea pigs what are the 2 main ectoparasites, clinical signs, diganosis and treatment
```
1) fleas - pruritis, dull coat, patchy alopecia
Dx - visualisation, flea dirt
2) scabies - pruritis and alopecia
Dx - deep skin scrap, clinical signs
Tx -> both selamectin (revolution)
```
32
Ferrets what are the 3 main ectoparasites, clinical signs, diagnosis/treatment
```
1) Sarcoptic Mange “Foot rot” - alopecia, intense pruritus, pain, nails can slough
Dx - deep skin scrap
Tx - ivermectin
2) Ear mite – Otodectes cyanotis - head shake, scratch, pruritis
Dx - smear
Tx - adovate (moxidectin)
3) Fleas (Dog & Cat)
Dx - visualisation
Tx - advantage (imidacloprid)
```
33
Mice and rats what are the 3 main ectoparasites, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment
1) Fur mites (multiple species) - greasy pruritic dermatitis, ulceration
Dx - sticky tape prep
Tx - ivermectin
2) Fleas (Dog, Cat, Wild rodent fleas) - dull coat
Dx - visualisation
Tx - frontline (fibronil)
3) Lice (Pediculosis) - weight loss, alopecia
Dx - exclusion and treatment trail
Tx - ivermectin
34
Bacterial dermatitis/pyoderma in rabbits location, bacterial, clinical signs and treatment
- Common in areas where moisture can build up
- S. aureus mostly, but can be variety of bacterial aetiologies
Clinical signs
- Moist, exudative lesions
- Ulcerative lesions
- Folliculitis
- Secondary ileus (reduced or absent gut sounds)
Treatment
- Clip and clean through to surgical debridement
- Barrier creams and topical antibiotic creams through to systemic antibiosis and analgesia
○ Beware of secondary dysbiosis
Avoid corticosteroid based preparations - NEVER
35
Bacterial dermatitis/pyoderma in ferrets/guinea pigs/ rats and mice how generally ocurr, bacteria, clinical signs, treatment
- Usually secondary to skin trauma (bite/fight/selfinflected)
- Staphs and streps usually, but can be a number or bacterial aetiologies
Clinical signs
- Superficial exudates and crusting
- Ulcerative lesions
- Folliculitis
- Furunculosis
- Anorexia and lethargy depending on severity of disease
Treatment
- Topicals (inc shampoos) for milder cases
- Systemic antibiosis for more severe cases
Beware of secondary dysbiosis in Guinea Pigs
36
Abscesses in small mammals what result from, where located, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment
- Usually the result of fight wounds, trauma, injection sites, surgical incisions, sometimes haematogenous or lymphatic spread
- If around the face, consider dental disease in all species
Clinical signs
- soft swelling +/- discharging sinus
- Can be pyrexia, anorexia and depression
- Rabbit pus is very thick and caseous
Diagnosis
- Via FNA could also culture
Treatment
- Surgical excision as complete mass
- Alternative, lancing, debridement, +/- drain placement and antibiotic impregnated gel or beads into abscess site
- Cover with broad spectrum antibiotics initially
- Analgesia
37
Fungal dermatopathies what mammals susceptible, causes, importance, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment
- All species are susceptible, though less common in indoor pets
- Is usually a Microsporum or Trichophyton
○ Microsporum fluoresces under sustained UV light
- Have zoonotic potential
Clinical signs
- Circular crusting lesions with central alopecia
- +/- pruritis
- Can be anywhere on the body
Diagnosis
- Woods lamp test (only useful if Microsporum)
- Fungal culture
Treatment
- Localised spots can be treated with topicals (ie, Canesten creams)
- Systemic antifungals – check texts for appropriate options
38
Neoplasia what type common in rabbits, ferrets, guinea pigs and rodents
- Rabbits – none specifically more common
- Ferrets – mast cell tumours common
- Guinea pigs – trichofolliculoma
○ Benign basal cell epithelioma, surgical excision usually curative though not always needed as not likely to metastasise and rarely locally invasive
- Rodents – Mammary neoplasia
○ Mice = malignant (usually) - not a good prognosis
○ Rats = benign
○ Both sexes can be affected
○ Vast distribution of mammary tissue means they can be almost anywhere on the body
39
injection site reaction what vaccine must susceptible, clinical signs, treatment and prevention
```
- Cylap RCD intradermally - rabbit calicivirus
Clinical signs
- Hair loss
- Ulceration
- Abscess
Treatment– supportive
Prevention
- Use new needle to give
- Ensure is SQ
- Massage!
• OHS – do not inject yourself. If you do seek medical attention immediately.
```
40
Rabbit diseases otitis externa what generally secondary to, results in and clinical signs
- Mite driven -> secondary to Psoroptes cuniculi (ear bites)
- Purulent discharge and wax found in the ears of many bunnies without overt clinical signs - differentaite wax and pus with cytology
- Otitis media with a ruptured tympanic membrane can result in pus in the external canal
Clinical signs
- Pruritus, head shaking, ear scratching
- visible pus on otoscopic examination
- Vestibular signs if middle ear affected
- Can be concurrent ear mite infestation
41
Otitis externa for rabbits diagnosis and treatment
Diagnosis
- Based on c/s and cytological evidence of infection - see the mites
- Imaging to assess for concurrent middle ear disease
Treatment
- ANALGESIA!
○ Avoid corticosteroid based therapies
- If electing topicals, need to clean out ear canal under GA first, as wax will impede activity of medications
○ If tympanic membrane is ruptured, avoid topicals and start empirical therapy with penicillin SQ
- With concurrent middle ear disease, base ongoing therapy on C&S
- Surgery possibly an option
42
Ulcerative pododermatitis in rabbits what is it, clinical signs and diagnosis
- Severe condition of the hocks, predisposed by inappropriate cage substrates
- Is a pressure sore (avascular necrosis) of the hock and associated structures.
Clinical signs
- Ulcerative lump on foot
Diagnosis - via clinical signs and imaging (to see if the bone is involved)
43
Ulcerative pododermatitis in rabbits treatment
- Correct the substrate (dry grass is ideal!) early in disease - prevention
- Bandages which distribute weight away from the hock/ulcer site
- Antibiotics (based on C&S ideally) and analgesia
- Rarely surgery, but can be salvage procedures
- Euthanasia
44
Myiasis in rabbits, what is it, what is required and clinical signs
Fly strike (Myiasis)
- Usually requires soiled or persistently wet skin to attract flies
Clinical signs
- Strike site typically between tail and dorsum - diagnosed based on clinical signs
- Secondary ileus (reduced or absent gut sounds)
45
Fly strike in rabbits treatment and management
Treatment
- Stabilisation for the critically unwell patient
- Sedation or anaesthesia (with analgesia!)
- Physical removal of maggots and debriding of affected tissue
- Antibiotics and ongoing analgesia
- Manage the secondary ileus - important - NEED TO GET THEM EATING AGAIN
Management
- Correct any underlying grooming issues or causes for soiling (dental disease, overweight, arthritis)
- Maximise hutch hygiene and apply fly wire to hutch
46
Myxomatosis in rabbits, what results in, transmission, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment
- 100% mortality rate of clinically affected rabbits
- Incubation of 8-21 days
- Biting insect vector
- Virus replicates at inoculation site -> disseminates via leucocytes to skin, spleen, lymph nodes, mucosal surfaces, testes, lungs, liver
Clinical signs
- Swollen eyelids, genitalia, ears, face
- Pyrexia
- Depression and anorexia
- Deaths within 14 days from secondary septicaemia
Diagnosis – based on clinical signs
Treatment – euthanasia is the only humane option
47
Treponematosis what is it, transmission, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment
(Rabbit syphilis)
- Sexually transmitted spirochete that infects offspring during birthing process
- Not really seen in Austalia
- Can be carriers if not symptomatic
Clinical signs
- Lesions at mucocutaneous junctions (nose, lips, eyelids, genitalia)
- Starts as erythema and oedema -> papules -> ulcerated nodules with exudative serum àcrusty scabbed lesions
Diagnosis
- skin biopsy and special silver staining
- serological test available in the UK - not in Australia so cannot diagnose
Treatment
- Procaine penicillin G subcutaneously once weekly until signs resolved
- DO NOT GIVE PPG ORALLY!
48
Ferret canine distemper virus mortality rate, prevented with and transmission
- 100% mortality rate typically within 21-35days after exposure
- 100% preventable by vaccination – give 1/3 of a C3 vaccination for dogs
- Direct contact, fomites and aerosols can transmit it
49
Ferret canine distemper virus clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment
```
Clinical signs
- Conjunctivitis and rhinitis initially
- Pyrexia
- Mandibular and inguinal rash
- Hyperkeratotic lesions of the nose and foot pads with brown crusting
- Neurological signs prior to death
Diagnosis – can do serum antibody titres
Treatment – euthanasia is only humane option
```
50
Alopecic syndrome in ferrets what are the two main ones and their cause
1) hyperoestrogenism (female) - persistent oestrus- need to be mated
2) adrenocortical disease (male) - early neutering, increased adrenal cortex, stimulation by FSH and LH, overproduction of androgens and oestrogens
51
Hyperoestrogenism in female ferrets clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment
Clinical signs - swollen vulva, weight loss and lethargy, bilaterally symmetric alopecia
diagnosis - low PCV and pancytopenia
Treatment - spey prior to oestrus, mate to vasectomised male
52
Adrenocortical disease in male or female ferrets clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment
CS - Swollen vulva (F)
Urethral obstruction (M)
Weight loss and lethargy
Bilaterally symmetric alopecia
D - low PCV and pancytopenia, adrenal mass
Treatment
Surgical - not without potential complication - can lead to haemorrhage
can be curative
Medical - Deslorelin implant (GnRH agonist)
53
Hypovitaminosis C in guinea pigs what is the requirement, how receive, definciency leads to, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment
- Absolute requirement of 10mg/kg/day
- Should source vitamin C from fresh fruits and vegetables
- Deficiency predisposes to range of infectious disorders
Clinical signs
- Rough coat with scaley pinnae
- Ecchymoses, petechiae and haematomas
- Painful and swollen joints
Diagnosis – not really necessary, just supplement
Treatment – correct the diet and supply 50-100mg/kg/day during initial phase of dietary correction
54
Cervical lymphadenitis in guinea pigs what is it, result from, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis
- Abscessation of the cervical lymph nodes
- Oral trauma/abrasion -> inoculation with Streptococcus zooepidemicus (or other bacterial aetiology) -> invasion of the cervical lymph nodes àabscess.
Clinical signs
- Ventral neck swelling with thick caseous exudate
- Secondary signs suggestive of septicaemia
Diagnosis
- FNA reveals suppurative inflammation with cocci
- C&S (include abscess capsule!)
Treatment
- Surgical removal of abscessed lymph node
- Systemic antibiotics
- Pain relief!
Prognosis – usually good
55
Pododermatitis with guinea pigs predisposition and clinical signs
```
Predispositions –
- Wire flooring
- Unsanitary conditions
- Obesity
- Vitamin C deficiency
Clinical signs
- Anorexia, lethargy with lameness and increased vocalisation
- Erythema and alopecia of foot pads
- Erosions and ulceration
- Secondary abscessation, osteomyelitis and sepsis
```
56
Pododermatitis in guinea pigs diagnosis and treatment
Diagnosis
- C/s, FNA of the area will reveal pyogranulomatous inflammation
- Imaging recommended
Treatment
- Correct the predispositions
- Dressings
- Topical ointments (eg. Silver sulfadiazine)
- Supplement vitamin C
- Systemic antibiotics based on C&S results (Beware dysbiosis - death if wrong antibiotic)
- Amputation
- Euthanasia
57
Ovarian cysts in guinea pigs when common, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment
- Common in entire females of 2-4yo
Clinical signs
- Lethargy and anorexia
- Non-pruritic
- +/- Bilaterally symmetric alopecia if functional cysts
- Abdominal distension with palpable cystic structures in the dorsocranial abdomen
Diagnosis
- C/s and palpation of the classical cystic lesions in the abdomen
- Ultrasonographic/radiographic evidence of ovarian cysts
Treatment – OHE - ovariohysterectomy
- Usually concurrent uterine changes
- Hair will typically regrow once speyed
58
what is important in the physical examination for eye issues in small mammals
```
- Any asymmetries present? - important
○ Exophthalmus
- Menace, PLR’s, following objects
- Eyelid abnormalities
- Punctum lacrimale in rabbits - need to look
- STT
- Topical anaesthetic application
- Fluorescein
○ Uptake anywhere
○ Check nostrils
- Mydriasis
○ Tropicamide for rabbits
○ Beware toxicities - dilute the dosage
- Dental examination
```
59
Conjunctivitis +/- corneal ulceration in any mammal what are some causes, clinical sign, diagnosis and treatment
- Primary - infectious origin
- Secondary to trauma, poor hygiene and ventilation, systemic illness, dental disease, tear film abnormalities
Clinical signs
- Hyperaemic conjunctiva +/- oedema
- Blepharospasm
- Epiphora
- +/- cloudy opacity to the cornea
Diagnosis
- Complete ocular examination (Fluorescein especially)
- Assess nasolacrimal duct drainage
Treatment
- Topical ointments (avoid ones with c’steroids in rabbits and guinea pigs)
○ Be mindful of potential toxicities for smaller patients
- Ulcer debridement, systemic anti-inflammatories +/- antibiotics
- Monitor once-twice weekly
60
Rabbit epiphora and dacryocystitis what are 3 common causes and clinical signs
○ Primary pasteurellosis
○ Blocked passage of nasolacrimal (NL) duct is common cause
○ Maxillary root elongation and periapical infections of tissue/bone/secondary lacrimal gland
Clinical signs
- Tear spillage over medial canthus +/- localised dermatitis
- Pain on palpation just ventral to medial canthus
- Purulent material in the eye or expressed through punctum lacrimale
- Swollen lacrimal sac
61
Rabbit Epiphora and Dacryocystitis diagnosis and treatment
Diagnosis
- STT > 11mm/min and other C/s
- Dental assessment including imaging
- Consider cytology and C&S of purulent material
Treatment
- Clip & clean facial dermatitis area (+/- under sedation/GA) then topical barrier cream around area of dermatitis +/- ophthalmic preparations
- As per conjunctivitis with NL duct flush (see notes for description)
- Consider systemic antibiotics
- Definitely pain relief
62
Encephalitozoon cuniculi in rabbits transmission, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment
- Can be asymptomatic carriers
- Speculated to be vertically acquired in utero
Clinical signs
- More commonly head tilt and neuro signs, renal signs
- If ocular, then unilateral disease usually with cataract formation
- Can see spontaneous lens rupture
- Iris abscess, hypopyon possible
- Acute uveitis (hyperaemic iris) with progression to chronic indicated by synechia or glaucoma
Diagnosis - challenging! -> as already exposed so antibodies doesn't help, if suspicious just treat
Treatment
- Fenbendazole for 30 days to kill parasite
- Symptomatic treatment for inflammatory response - NSAIDS
63
Prolapse conditions what are the 2 main ones in rabbits what results in and treatment
1) Third eyelid deep gland prolapse
○ Similar to ”Cherry eye” in dogs
○ Looks more severe
○ Surgical reduction is possible
○ May need surgical excision, but avoid if possible as can cause secondary tear film disturbances
2) Retrobulbar disease/Exophthalmus
○ Similar process to other species (especially dental disease)
○ By the time of presentation, is late in disease process.
○ Usually requires enucleation
○ Always cover with antibiotics and pain relief
○ Treat underlying cause
64
What are the 5 main ferret eye diseases
1. Canine Distemper Virus – as per skin slide
2. Human Influenza - Conjunctivitis
3. Cataracts – inherited/congenital/acquired/incidental
○ Control secondary uveitis +/- phaecoemulsification
4. Retinal degeneration – think dogs
5. Exophthalmus (think lymphoma!)
65
Exophthalmus in ferrets what result in, cause, diagnosis and treatment
○ Usually very progressed disease at presentation
○ Exposure keratitis occurs
○ Can get lymphoma in retrobulbar location prior to systemic signs
○ Full systemic testing required to rule out lymphoma
○ Can get retrobulbar abscesses/foreign bodies which would typically have more pain appreciable than with lymphoma
○ Enucleation often required
66
What are the 4 main guinea pig ocular diseases
1. Foreign body conjunctivitis and ulceration
○ Remove the foreign body and treat as per standard corneal ulcer principles
2. Chlamydial conjunctivitis
○ PCR (Chlamydia caviae)
○ Tetracycline based ophthalmic preparation
3. Congenital deformities
4. Heterotropic bone formation
○ Vitamin C mediated
○ Deposition of calcium into the aqueous humour and calcification at the limbus
○ No treatment required usually
67
Rodent ocular disease what are the 2 main ones, cause, clinical signs and treatment
1. Chromodacryorrhoea
- Red tears
- Can be from nostrils and on front legs from grooming
- Induced by porphyrin pigment in rodent tears that is produced during stressful times
- No treatment specifically
2. Conjunctivitis secondary to Upper Respiratory Tract Disease
- Classical signs as per other species + sneezing and red tears
- Consider PCR for mycoplasma diagnosis
- Treatment is symptomatic
68
Rabbit what is special about their upper and lower respiratory tract anatomy
Upper respiratory anatomy
- Obligate nasal breathers
- Narrow oropharynx
- Glottis is small and difficult to visualise from the oral cavity
Lower respiratory anatomy
- Thorax in a rabbit is small compared to abdominal contents
- Thymus persists throughout life
- Thin pleural
No septum dividing lungs -> once get disease here spreads easily
69
Rabbit rhinitis/sinusitis clinical signs and differential diagnosis
```
- Clinical signs
○ Sneezing +/- discharge
○ Staining around nares
○ Stertor/snore
○ Open mouth breathing
- Differential diagnosis
○ Trauma
○ Foreign bodies
○ Dental diseases - secondary to maxillary tooth root overgrowth
○ Infections - bacterial most common - pasturellosis, mycoplasma, pseudomonas, Bordetella (generally no clinical disease)
○ Inflammatory diseases
○ Neoplasia
○ Other masses - around head and neck that place pressure and constrict upper airway
```
70
Rabbit rhinitis/sinusitis 4 diagnostic techniques and treatment
Diagnostic testing
a. Imaging
§ radiographs - lots of superimposition so need multiple x-rays
§ CT - best
§ Endoscopy - can be useful
b. Culture and sensitivity
§ Deep nasal swabs and nasolacrimal duct flushes collection
§ Looking for predominant overgrowth of one organism
c. Biopsy
d. Bloods - haematology and biochemistry -> tend not to get increase so not as helpful
Treatment
○ Primary medical management - flush when can, antibiotics based on culture and sensitivity
○ Surgical debridement
71
What is important with emergency stabilisation for rabbits
Emergency stabilisation - place in dark, quite room to reduce stress with supplementary oxygen and minimise handling for 30mins
72
Rabbit intrathoracic respiratory disease clinical signs and differential diagnosis
```
- Clinical signs
○ Difficulty breathing, open mouth breathing, increased respiratory rate, wheezes, crackles
- Differential diagnosis
○ Secondary to URT
○ Trauma and foreign bodies
○ Primary respiratory disease
§ Infection
§ Inflammatory
§ Neoplasia - below
Other intrathoracic disease
```
73
Pasturellosis how common in rabbits, transmission, zoonotic and what affects the disease
- Gram -ve bacterium - most common cause of respiratory disease in rabbits
- Commensal
- Transmission - nasal, oral fomites, vertical
- Very rarely may be zoonotic
- Course of disease varies with
○ Strain virulence
○ Host immune response
○ Additional stressors
74
Thoracic neoplasia of rabbits what are some common ones
- Lower respiratory disease the only primary neoplasia is pulmonary carcinoma
○ HOWEVER lymphosarcoma may affect lungs and mediastinal lymph nodes
- Lungs are the most common site for metastases
○ Female entire rabbits usually secondary to uterine adenocarcinoma
- Thymoma and malignant thymic lymphomas
75
Cardiac disease in rabbits anatomic consideration and history
- Anatomic considerations
○ Rabbit thorax small in consideration to the rest of its body
○ The mediastinum in normal rabbits contains fat
○ The left AV valve is tricuspid rather than bicuspid
- History
○ Dyspnoea, tachypnoea (normal RR 30-60bpm) but can increase with stress), syncope and cyanosis
○ Non-specific signs
Signs may be hidden until disease has reaches serious stage
76
Cardiac disease in rabbits clinical signs and diagnostic tests
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- Clinical signs
○ Pallor, cyanosis, muffled heart sound, tachycardia (normal 150-300bpm), murmur, gallop rhythm, crackles and weak pulses
○ Coughing NOT COMMON
○ Rarely: R sided heart failure may result in exophthalmos
- Diagnostic tests
○ Radiology
○ Electrocardiography
○ Echocardiography
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77
Cardiac disease in rabbits what are the 2 main ones, what caused by and treatment options
1. Chronic AV valve disease - endocardiosis
- Older rabbits
- Mitral more common than tricuspid
2. Cardiomyopathies (rare)
- Nutritional deficiencies, infectious diseases, toxins or stress
- Dilative, hypertrophic or restrictive
Treatment: frusemide, pimobendane, ace-inhibitors
78
Guinea pigs oral anatomy what is different
- Detention angles inwards so harder to visualise the oral cavity
- Long soft palate
- Platational ossium (larynx is hidden away within - need scope)
- Prone to respiratory infections
- Nasal obligate breather
- Thymus surrounds the trachea
79
Guinea pigs respiratory disease predisposing factors and clinical signs
- Predisposing factors
○ Vitamin C deficiency - keep teeth embedded within - if not then infection - predispose to respiratory disease
○ Husbandry issues - ventilation and toxic ammonia build up
○ Gradients, cold or hot weather, dusty environment
- Clinical signs of bacterial pneumonia in guinea pigs
○ Anorexia, ocular and nasal discharge, abnormal respiratory sounds (wheezing, gurgling), lethargy and sneezing
○ May progress to tachypnoea and or dyspnoea
80
Guinea pig respiratory disease what are the 4 main differential diagnosis and things within
○ Infectious
§ Bordetella (rabbit harbour this bacteria so don't house together)
§ Adenovirus - sudden death
§ Fungal - less common
○ Inflammatory
§ Allergic suspected
○ Neoplastic
§ Primary respiratory adenocarcinoma
§ Metastatic mammary neoplasia - RARE
§ Lymphosarcoma and leukemia leading to dyspnoea as affect mediastinal lymph nodes
○ Diseases affecting other systems - heat stress, pain
81
Pulmonary neoplasia what is the main one in guinea pigs and prevalence
○ Bronchogenic papillary adenoma is the most common
| § Prevalence of 35%
82
Ferrets respiratory anatomy, respiratory rate, lung capacity and clinical signs of respiratory disease
- Obligatory nasal breathers due to close apposition of the epiglottis to the soft palate
- Normal respiratory rate at rest is 33-36bpm
- Large lung capacity
- Chest wall is very compliant
- Ferrets exhibit neurogenic inflammation when sensory nerve stimulation causes a release of tachykinins (viral diseases and airborne toxins eg nicotine) can cause this response
Clinical signs of respiratory disease:
- Photophobia, cattarhal nasal discharge, sneezing, coughing, pyrexia, anorexia and malaise
83
Respiratory disease in ferrets what are the 4 main ones
1) influenza
2) pneumonia
3) distempter
4) dental disease can cause URT signs
84
Influenza in ferrets which influenza, clinical course, what may progress to and treatment
○ Only domestic species naturally responsive to human influenza
○ Clinical course 7-14 days
○ May progress to pneumonia
○ Treatment: supportive care, antihistamines, cough suppressants and prophylactic antibiotics
85
Pneumonia in ferrets what most common cause, other causes and treatment
○ Aspiration is suspected to be the most common cause
○ Other bacterial causes eg. B. bronchispetica, P. multocida, Mycoplasma spp.
§ B. bronchispectica vaccination possible
§ Separation of young ferrets from dogs is recommended
○ Treatment: antibiotics, supportive care, antihistmaines (eg diphenhydramine helps with nasal congestion if present)
86
Distempter in ferrets disease progression, transmission, early and later signs
○ Fatal in ferrets - VACCINATE FOR
○ Disease progression 12-42 days depending on the strain
○ Transmission through direct contact, fomites or aerosolization of feces, urine or nasal exudate
○ Early signs: anorexia, pyrexia, photophobia, chin dermatitis, nasal and ocular discharge
○ Later signs: bronchopneumonia, hyperkeratosis around nasal planum and footpads then CNS signs including tremors, convulsions and death
87
Ferret cardiac disease how common, normal HR, clinical signs and diagnostics
- COMMON
- Heart more caudal
- Normal HR = 180-250bpm
- Clinical signs - exercise intolerance, dyspnoea, weakness, pallor with prolonged CRT
- Diagnostics - radiograph and echocardiography
88
Ferret cardiac disease what are the 4 main ones
1) cardiomyopathy
2) valvular heart disease
3) heartworm disease
4) metabolic disease can manifest
89
Cardiomyopathy in ferrets what age common in, what type most common and treatment
○ most common in middle age to older ferrets
○ Dilated most common but also see hypertrophic
§ Characterised with increase diastolic dimension of left and right ventricles
§ Treatment same as rabbits
90
Valvular heart disease in ferrets how common, what type and what metabolic disease manifests as cardiac disease
Valvular heart disease
○ Endocardiosis is the second most common form of heart disease in ferrets
○ Mitral valve appears most affected followed by tricuspid and aortic
○ Echocardiology is used to differentiate mitral valve endocardiosis from DCM
§ Increased or normal fractional shortening and contractility occur in endocardiosis and are reduced in DCM.
Metabolic disease can manifest as cardiac disease:
○ Hypoglycaemia from insulinoma, liver disease or fasting can cause bradycardia
○ Functional phaeochromocytomas may cause increased heart rate, blood pressire and weakness
91
Heartworms disease in ferrets diagnosis, preventative medication, clinical signs and treatment
○ Low transient levels of microfilaria
○ ELISA based antigen tests (IDDEXX snap tests are effective 5-6 months after infection but may be negative due to low numbers of adult heartworm
○ Adult heartworm may be seen by ultrasound 5 months after infection in CVC or right side of heart
○ Preventative medication: selamectin, ivermectin, moxidectin
○ Clinical signs similar to dogs: coughing, dyspnea, tacchypnea, pleural effusion, ascites
○ Adulticide:
§ single dose of moxidectin (Proheart) at 0.1ml/ferret sc has been used safely and effectively
§ melarsomine can cause severe reactions (incl. death)
92
Rodents what is the main thing that is special about respiratory anatomy. clinical signs and 2 main predisposing factors for respiratory disease
```
Comparative respiratory anatomy
- Obligate nasal breathers
Clinical signs:
- Nasal discharge, ocular discharge, clicking/snuffling, dyspnea, cyanosis, open mouth breathing, head tilt (vestibular involvement), signs of general malaise
Predisposing factors to respiratory disease - HUSBANDRY
1. High ammonia levels in enclosure due to
○ High stocking density
○ Poor ventilation
○ Inadequate hygiene
2. Air pollution
○ Dust
○ Fungal spores
○ Disinfectant vapours
○ Pollutants
```
93
Rodent respiratory disease what are the 2 main causes and causes within and diagnostic tests used
1. Infectious:
- Bacterial:
○ Mycoplasma pulmonis (major pathogen in rats)
○ Bordatella bronchiseptica
○ Chlamydophila
- Viral:
○ Hantavirus
○ Sendaivirus (major pathogen in adult mice)
- Fungal: pnuemocystosis
2. Non-infectious:
○ Allergic
○ Aspiration
○ Neoplasia
Diagnostic testing (size can be a limiting factor here):
1. Microbiology – culture and sensitivity - prone to contamination - looking for overgrowths
2. Imaging – xray, CT
94
Mycoplasma pulmonis pneumonia in rats how common, transmission, causes, possible results
- Most common respiratory pathogen in rats
- Transmission via direct contact, aerosolization and transplacentally - MOST RATS EXPOSED EXCEPT FOR SCIENTIFIC FREE
- Usually sets up a persistent infection
- Causes:
○ Acute: tracheobronchitis or pneumonia
○ Chronic: airway inflammation, bronchiectasis
○ Sometimes middle ear infection
- Like asthma - potentiates neurogenic infection - get hypersensitivity
- Like chronic bronchitis - ongoing pulmonary infeciton
- Biofilm created allows bacterial colonisation
95
Rodent respiratory disease what are the 6 main treatments needed
1. Supportive care (oxygen, fluids, nutritional, pain relief)
2. Antimicrobials
○ Doxycycline (anti-inflammatory action and penetrates the biofilm)
○ Amoxycillin/clavulanic acid
○ Enrofloxacin in combination with doxycycline
○ Azithromycin
3. Bronchodilators (can be given orally or nebulised) – oral dose theophylline concurrently with enrofloxacin then reduce the theophylline dose by 30% asmetabolism is inhibited by fluoroquinolones
4. Nebulisation (small particle size <3um) with
○ bronchodilators (aminophylline)
○ mucolytics (acetylcysteine)
○ mucokinetics (hypertonic saline 9% for 15 minutes twice daily)
5. Anti-inflammatories
○ Meloxicam
6. Environmental management - important - good ventilation and husbandry
96
Reptile cardiovascular anatomy how many chamber heart, position within, HR (how to detect)
- 3 chambered heart (incomplete interventricular septum) in lizards, snakes and chelonians
○ 4 chambered heart in crocodilians
- Position of the heart within the coelom varies:
○ Snake ¼ - 1/3rd body length
○ Chelonians – cranial coelomic cavity
○ Lizards vary eg bearded dragons (cranial) vs monitor lizard (further caudal)
- Heart rates in reptile lower and vary with: temperature, oxygen saturation in blood, respiratory ventilation, stress
- Auscultation with doppler or stethoscope and wet towel - ESPECIALLY TURTLES
97
Reptile heart clinical signs, diagnostic testing and treatments
Clinical signs: enlarged heart, non-specific signs (weight loss, lethargy), cyanosis, or abnormal auscultation
Diagnostic testing:
1. Haematology and biochemistry
2. Imaging: radiology, echocardiology, ECG
Treatments:
- Depends of the underlying aetiology but anecdotal reports exist of the use of diurectics (furosemide) and ACE-I (benazepril)
98
Reptile respiratory anatomy why hard to intubate, diaphragm, respiration varies with
- Blocked nares can cause stridor
- Glottis closed at rest - easy to intubate
- Breath holding can be prolonged - don't want to mask down a reptile
- Inability to cough making some species prone to lower respiratory tract disease
- No diaphragm – air is inspired by negative pressure breathing
- Respiration varies with
○ temperature (not carbon dioxide)
○ physiological or behavioural reasons which may result in increased respiration (stress)
99
Reptile lungs how many chambers, where located in turtle, snake what important
○ Single chambered in snakes and some lizards
○ Multichambered in monitor lizards, chelonians and crocodilians
○ Chelonia: lungs sit dorsally just below carapace
○ Snakes:
§ One functional lung (right) in most snakes with left lung vestigial or absent
§ Pythons and boas being more primitive snakes have 2 lungs
100
Respiratory disease in reptile how common, what predisposed by and main clinical signs
- COMMON IN REPTILES
- Predisposed via HUSBANDRY
- Clinical signs of respiratory disease
○ Nasal discharge (with URT disease), increased respiratory noise/effort, glottal swelling, open mouth breathing, constant gaping, signs of general malaise.
101
Reptile respiratory infectious causes what are some
- Bacterial: eg Mycobacteria, Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, Klebsiella, E. coli
- Viral
○ Paramyxoviruses - the first 2 listed below also show neurological signs
○ Ferlavirus (previously known as OPMV)
○ Sunshinevirus
○ Reovirus
- Parasitic (note: Ivermectin is toxic to chelonians)
○ Flukes
○ Protozoa
102
Sunschine virus location, transmission and main results
- Detected in most states of Victoria
- Transmission suspected via:
○ Horizontal: cloacal (fecal and cloacal secretions) and oral (aerosol) routes
○ Vertical: not confirmed (viral positive embryos have been tested but no virus has been detected from hatchlings – possibly self-limiting in that affected embryos may not hatch)
- Neurorespiratory disease
103
Sunschine virus and ferlavirus what are the 3 main clinical signs categories and signs within, how to confirm
```
1. Neurological
○ Head tremors
○ Opisthotonus (star gazing)
○ Incoordination of front and back body
○ Diminished righting reflexes
○ Erratic gaping mouth
2. Respiratory
○ Mild discharge of clear viscous fluid from mouth
○ Dyspneoa
3. Non-specific
○ Lethargy
○ Anorexia
○ Stomatitis
○ Regurgitation
○ Weakness
○ Dermatitis
- Some snakes may carry and not have clinical signs
CONFIRM - via viral PCR
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104
Reptiles diagnostic tests what are the 6 main ones
1. History
2. Physical exam
3. Haematology/ biochemistry - systemic inflammation
4. Microbiology (culture and sensitivity of tracheal swabs or BAL samples)
5. Imaging (radiology, CT, endoscopy)
6. Viral PCR (oral and cloacal swabs in viral transport media - available through Tim Hyndman at Murdoch University)
105
Reptile respiratory disease what are the 3 main treatment options
1. Husbandry assessment and improvement
2. Supportive care
○ Oxygen
○ Fluids
○ Pain relief
3. Antimicrobials if indicated: administered to animals at their preferred body temperature (minimum 4 week treatment) eg.
○ Enrofloxacin
○ Ceftazidimine
○ Metronidazole
