Extreme Environments Flashcards

Question

What are characteristics of erratics?

Answer 1

Glacier-transported rock fragments that differ from local bedrock Used to indicate the direction of glacial movement

Answer 2

Arctic continental, alpine, Arctic maritime Vary in temp → vary in frequency / intensity of periglacial processes

Answer 3

Temperatures fluctuate above and below freezing When frozen, water expands 9 -10% → pressure on rocks → angular scree fragments

Answer 4

Solifluction: frozen winter water expands soil and segregates particles → spring melt can't infiltrate permafrost → carries particles over and deposits as solifluction lobe or terracette Frost creep: type of solifluction; particles rise on frozen ground and lower in elevation when melted → move downslope a little from gravity Rockfall: often from freeze-thawing

Answer 5

Continuous: mean -5°c to -50°c Discontinuous: mean -1.5°c to -5°c Sporadic: mean 0°c to -1.5°c Active layer: above permafrost, intense mass movements Depth determined by latitude, altitude, rock type, aspect (insulation from direction), vegetation, presence of "insulating" peaty soil

Answer 6

Isolated, conical hill up to 90m high and 800m wide in periglacial areas Movement and freezing of water under pressure Open system: water source is distant Closed system: local water source, forms from expanding permafrost

Answer 7

Landscape of hummocks and wet hollows from sinking melting permafrost Processes: thawing ice wedges → elongated depressions, thawing pingos → craters, removal of vegetation, fire, climate warming

Answer 8

Stone stripes, polygons, garlands in periglacial areas subject to intense frost action Unsure of formation but frost heave, ice sorting, solifluction, vegetation affect it

Answer 9

Salt crystallization (decomposes rocks): two types of salt crystal growth Temps around 26-28°c sodium sulfate and sodium carbonate expand → crack joints Salt left from water evaporation expands Disintegration: large daily temperature fluctuations + moisture causes exfoliation of rocks from expansion and contraction Weathering causes regolith, unconsolidated layer above rock

Answer 10

Short downpours cause flash floods which erode and spread into a fan Water table may be exposed by deflation to form an oasis Rivers Exotic / exogenous: sourced in a wetter environment and flow through Endorheic: drain into an inland lake or sea Ephemeral: seasonal or after storms

Answer 11

Wind action important where winds are: > 20 km/hr, turbulent, constant direction, long time Near surface, speed reduced by friction but increases turbulence if ground is rough Sediment moved by drag and lift forces especially if dry / loose / small and no veg Types of wind erosion: Deflation: removal of small material → stony desert Abrasion: sandpaperness of windborn particles

Answer 12

Dunes: 1000s of km2 and 500+ m high; gentle slope windward steep leeward; shape depends on sand supply, wind, ground surface, veg; Barchan and crescent / U-shaped common and form around shrubs or rocks Yardang: up to 100m high and many k long; heterogenous rock where soft strata is removed → long ridges Zeugen: same but mushroom-shaped Wadi: up to > 100 km; steep side and flat bottom river channel; from flash floods or pluvial Mesa: plateau-like formed from former resistant rock Butte: small mesa, final stage before total erosion

Answer 13

(Semi) nomadism: wander with herds for water and pasture Settled agriculture at oases, desalination plants, exotic rivers (maybe dams)

Answer 14

Little water and rainfall, high temps, sun, wind, overgrazing Soil: dry bc negative water balance (evapotraspiration / stores > precip), infertile bc low biomass, minerals, and clay, not generally leached Salinization in arid areas: poor drainage in valley / basin → surface run-off evaporates → leaves salts → plants die from wilting and reverse osmosis

Answer 15

Reduce herd size to limit pressure on veg Solar panels not poop Poop as fertilizer Planting veg for animals Efficient irrigation Line irrigation channels with concrete to fight seepage Build dams to collect water Salt-tolerant crops

Answer 16

American aloe: little moisture, no insects, ups milk production in cows, soil conservation, after 10 years pole, wind break, juice used in tequila Saltbush: protein, little water, all year, no irrigation after establishment, hard to propagate Prickly pear: insect-resistant or fruit variety, annual pruning Eastern Cape in South Africa is fragile and trialed plants in the 80s

Answer 17

South African essential oil market sells to Europe, US, Japan: Southern Hemisphere, trade links to Europe, establishing agricultural production Eastern Cape has many trials and would employ people: Source of income, labor intensive / local, plants culturally accepted, plants unvaluable → not stolen, weed species removal good for grazing

Answer 18

Pros: large potential, earnings for countries / TNCs Cons: remote, transportation, utilities at settlements, desalination plants, environmental impacts

Answer 19

Arguments for: copper needed for clean energy, mine imports 105% water needed, used land reclaimed, employ Arizonans, support linked industries Arguments against: pollute air and water, visible from scenic route, destroy outdoor tourism and jobs, relatively small number of jobs, destruction of endangered species habitat and historic indigenous sites, traffic

Answer 20

Ecosystems susceptible to interference bc few species Low temps → limit decomposition → long-lasting pollution Permafrost easily melts from buidings / pipelines / veg change → soil sediment causes sinking

Answer 21

Frost heave lifts structures from the ground → must be embedded deep which is expensive Above ground pipes mess with wildlife Zig-zag lines to allow for expansion / contraction and earthquakes

Answer 22

Range of climactic conditions, lots of resources, oil, wildlife (Alaska National Wildlife Refuge) Trans-Alaska goes north-south up near ANWR, want to drill in refuge, built on insulted supports above ground, ecosystem may not recover from a spill

Answer 23

Greenland has political (subsidies from Denmark) and physical challenges (small pop, ice, inaccessible) Cryolite mined 130 years for aluminum 2009 achieved resource nationalism - controls its own resources 2014 oil price collapse → too $ to mine in Arctic for companies → not independent

Answer 24

Area around Everest can't supply resource demands of locals and tourists, waste generated Tourism and (more so) climate change cause environmental problems Can't close mountain bc Sherpa livelihood Tourism is continuously growing Benefits: global economy integration; rise in foreign revenue to clear debts; up local income and employment; locals learn new skills Costs: deforestation and roads cause run-off and flooding; destabilization of soil; destroy veg / habitat; litter / waste on trekking routes

Answer 25

Sherpa threatened by other groups → International Porters’ Protection Group Increasing use of resources Pollution in pits will threaten surrounding area Road-building done unsafely Congestion from overcrowding of rich tourists Global warming will effect nine major river systems (1/3 of pop)

Answer 26

Largest and most traditional NM Pueblo, famous for art and physical geography Developing tourism in a way compatible with current lifestyle and community Sociocultural concerns: limited external involvement, no hotel / casino, no documentation of religious events Environmental concerns: water concerns, some guided development allowed

Answer 27

Land degradation in humid and semi-arid areas Loss of biological and economic productivity Climactic variability + unsustainable human activities Causes Natural drought Overgrazing: veg lost in eating + trampling → soil and wind erosion Overcultivation: yield decreases each season → expansion Deforestation: trees striped or cleared for cultivation → erosion from rain and wind Lack of mobility by govt; lack of environmental laws; bad water management; short-term land exploitation; civil strife / war

Answer 28

Environmental: loss of soil nutrients through wind and water erosion, change in veg and biodiversity, reduction in land for cropping and pasture, sedimentation of streams and reservoirs, expansion of sand dunes Economic: reduced income from trad economy, decreased fuel wood → buy oil, increased dependence on food aid and poverty Social / cultural: loss of trad knowledge and skills, forced migration, tension in migrant reception

Answer 29

Overgrazing: improved stock quality → better yield without more animals; better area management Vac programs improve survival → bigger deforestation: herds; population pressure prevents Overcultivation: fertilizers; new or improved crops; improved forming methods Cost to farmers; artificial fert hurts soil; need expensive fert, tech, skills; risk crop failure Deforestation: agroforestry; social forestry with community; alternative fuels Long growth time for benefits; expensive irrigation, maintenance, equipment

Answer 30

North Pole has been melting and contains a lot of oil and methane USA, Russia, and other countries are competing Russian companies staking claims bc mainland oil fields are declining Russia organizing naval bases and fleets for security Control shipping lanes created by melting

Answer 31

Nenets: nomadic reindeer herders of the Yamal Peninsula; threatened by climate change and oil / gas exploration; changing migration paths; decline in fish Yamal Megaproject: pipelines built from Yamal across Russia / Europe; destroyed > 64k km2 of tundra → pollutes water / fish, harms reindeer migration, destroying Nenets’ way of life

Answer 32

Energy control has caused many wars bc countries with a surplus of energy and transportation have strength and influence ISIS is a Sunni extremist group with control over oil in parts of Syria and Iraq Libya has a lot of oil but production is limited by political unrest and ISIS affiliated attacks Yemen is located on the sea (good for oil transport) but is dealing with faction fighting, means ISIS could take over → reduced oil supply

Answer 33

Development that improves basic standards of living without compromising needs of future generations

Answer 34

Nile provides most of Egypt's water but there's resource strain and pollution Aquaponics system increases yield by having crops and fish in one freshwater system Water cycled from tilapia (gives 90% of nutrients, breathing ammonia → nitrogen) to crops to olive trees 90% less water used and faster growing Labor-intensive and biological pest-control Could be a method of income but it is expensive

Answer 35

Removes salt from seawater to make it potable and for irrigation Costly bc requires a lot of energy Increasing use in the Middle East (Israel, Saudi Arabia) and other areas (California)

Answer 36

Formed in 2009 as a German private-sector group to make worldwide power from desert solar profitable Response to climate issues, but didn't address root causes and capitalist energy models Not sustainable development if it's just for rich consumers 2013 fall in wind / solar price → Europe can produce internally → Desertec concluded Still some solar projects in the Northern Sahara but TNCs are involved TNCs can't do sustainable development like communities

Answer 37

Rising temps and aridity in the Sahel raises evaporation and causes hazards resulting in food insecurity and poverty Senegal's coping strategies: Improve soil fertility by being careful with fertilizers Improve efficiency of irrigation and pest control Water and soil conservation to reduce run-off Developing Great Green Wall of the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative: line of trees across southern Sahara to combat resource degradation and desertification

Answer 38

Sahel: semi-arid; between Sahara and humid sub-tropics Indigenous folks adapt by using limited resources and migration Diet varies by availability and condition Since the 70s, drought has become worse bc greenhouse effect Environmental effects of CC: food insecurity, pressure on water systems, flooding, disease from mosquitos Sociopolitical effects of CC: conflict over resources, border disputes, forced migration → crowding, tension over energy supplies, international political tension

Answer 39

Traditional increased mobility Manage size / composition of herds Exchange livestock and products Use drought-tolerant species Use wild species and trees Windbreaks and land enclosure to reduce wind erosion of soil Irrigate with river water Dune stabilization

Answer 40

Increasing temp most impacts periglacial areas where the average is ~freezing Problems: flooded islands and coasts from melting permafrost, rising sea, coastal erosion; increased living expenses and dangerous sea ice for Inuit, trad way of life is hard; fish migration; exposed fossil fuels hurt people and env Advantages: available farming; tourism; economic plus from exposed mining and fossil fuels

Answer 41

Low-altitude European resorts may need to move up or use snow-makers to sustain guests Concentrating people at higher and higher altitudes Unreliable resorts will increase

Answer 42

Communication: diversified media and access to weather and hazard info Transport: system that functions during extreme events Finance: access to banking / credit / insurance to spread risk surrounding extreme events Economic diversification: access to a range of economic and livelihood options Education: language and skills to understand risks and shift livelihood strategies Organization + representation: organize via diverse public / private / civil society orgs Knowledge generation, planning, learning: social + scientific basis to learn, identify hazards, analyze risk, respond based on local conditions

Extreme Environments Flashcards

(66 cards)