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IB Geography HL > Extreme Environments > Flashcards

Extreme Environments Flashcards

1
Q

Define sustainability

A

Social, economic, environmental uses of resources in a way that allows future generations to maintain their standard of living

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2
Q

Define arid and semi-arid

A

Arid: < 250mm rain per year
Semi-arid: 250mm-500mm rain per year

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3
Q

Define soil infertility

A

Lack of nutrients or bases in soils caused by low weathering rates, a lack of biomass
Insufficient nutrients to support arable farming

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4
Q

Define periglacial

A

Snow and ice cover on the fringe of glaciated areas, associated with permafrost frozen for 2+ years

High mountain and tundra areas of northern Eurasia and North America

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5
Q

Define permafrost

A

Permanently frozen subsurface (2+ years)

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6
Q

Define weathering and erosion

A

Weathering: breakdown of the earth’s surface in situ, without a moving force

Erosion: breakdown of earth’s surface by a moving force

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7
Q

Define desertification

A

The spread of desert or desert-like conditions

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8
Q

Define indigenous people

A

People native to an area who have been there for many generations

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9
Q

Define resource nationalism

A

Use of a country’s resources to benefit that country rather than allowing a TNC or another country to benefit

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10
Q

Where are cold and high-altitude environments found?

A

Cold environments: high latitude and high-altitude
Polar environments: North and South poles (low solar radiation)
Periglacial environments: belt in northern hemisphere (not much in southern)
Cold mountains: Himalayas, Andes, Rockies (temp down 10°c per 1000m up)

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11
Q

What four conditions determine the location of deserts and semi-arid environments?

A

1) stable, high-pressure conditions at tropics (Sahara, Australian deserts)

2) continentality- large distance from sea (Sahara, SW US)

3) rain-shadow effects (Patagonia, Gobi)

4) proximity to cold upwelling currents to limit air moisture

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12
Q

What are the conditions in cold and high-altitude environments?

A

Mountains: warm days, cold nights; lots of relief rain or no rain from rain shadow; hard to build / transport; overland run-off / erosion / thin soil

Polar: little rain

Periglacial: low evaporation → waterlogged soil; short growing season; can support people

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13
Q

What are the conditions in desert and semi-arid environments?

A

Desert: hard to farm without freshwater access; steep or flat; streams and flash floods

Semi-arid: possible to farm, especially with conservation methods

Warm, dry conditions good for tourism, especially near coasts

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14
Q

Why are there low population densities in extreme environments?

A

Extremes of climate: insufficient heat, insufficient water, etc
Fall outside of “comfort zones for human habitation”

Many areas are remote → costly communications, materials, imports

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15
Q

How do people cope in periglacial environments?

A

Periglacial pastures to herd / hunt caribou
Migration from tundra to forest margins
Fishing in rivers / oceans

Building on permafrost: raise buildings so nothing melts, thaw then build
Water supplies: nearby lakes / rivers, melting, protected pipes
Transport: constant repair to roads / bridges, dirt → gravel for drainage, paint roads white

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16
Q

How do people cope in arid environments?

A

Relief: travel on flat plains not slopes

Rainfall: lower rainfall → greater variety by year; sheet flow water instead of channels

Migration: rest in the middle of the day, avoid direct sun, long, loose-fitting clothes

Permanent water: settle near rivers

Remoteness: deserts can be remote from sheer size

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17
Q

How do glaciers grow and shrink?

A

Inputs: accumulation of snow, avalanches, debris, meltwater
Main store: ice; also carries debris, moraine, meltwater
Outputs: ablation (melting), sublimation of ice to water, sediment

Positive regime: accumulation > ablation (thicken and advance)
Negative regime: accumulation < ablation (thin and retreat)

Usually accumulation at high altitudes and ablation at snout

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18
Q

How do deserts’ distributions change?

A

Long-term changes in climate (more arid now than in rainy pluvials, same time as glacier advances)

Evidence from sand dunes suggest Sahara was wetter

Annual / decadal changes in rainfall → natural desertification

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19
Q

What are the methods of glacial erosion?

A

Plucking (base or side): meltwater seeps into rock cracks, freezes, rock ripped out of bedrock

Abrasion: debris leaves striations in rock, worn down to a rock floor

Other: meltwater, freeze-thaw weathering, pressure release

Fragments carried on top of ice (supraglacial moraine), under (subglacial), within (englacial)

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20
Q

How are cirques / corries formed?

A

Amphitheater shaped valley at glacier head

1) preglacial hollow enlarged by nivation (freeze-thaw and removal by snowmelt)
2) ice accumulates in hollow
3) at critical weight and depth, ice moves out rotating, eroding the floor
4) meltwater trickles down the bergschrund, cirque grows via freeze-thaw

After glaciation there’s a hollow and sometimes a lake

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21
Q

What other landforms are produced by glacial erosion?

A

Arêtes and pyramidal peaks / horns: headward recession of 2+ cirques
Glacial troughs: U-shaped valleys with steep sides and flat floors, truncated interlocking spurs of preglacial valley (shape / conditions depend on geomorphological activity)
Rock basins with ribbon lakes
Hanging valleys with waterfalls
Roche moutonnée: bare mound of rock smoothed by abrasion up-valley but plucked down-valley

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22
Q

What are drift and till?

A

Drift: all glacial and fluvioglacial deposits left after ice has melted
Till: glacial deposits, lodgement till by active glaciers and ablation till by stagnant or retreating ice

Till characteristics: poor sorting and stratification, mix of rock types, most striated and angular, long axis oriented in flow direction, some compaction of deposits

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23
Q

What are characteristics of moraine?

A

Moraines: loose rocks weathered from valley side and carried by glaciers

Terminal moraine: crescent-shaped mound at glacier snout, up-valley / ice-contact slope is steeper
Lateral moraine: ridge on the edge of the glacier and valley
Medial moraine: merge of lateral moraine in the middle of a big glacier

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24
Q

What are the characteristics of drumlins?

A

Small oval mounds up to 1.5 km long and 100 m high
Result of friction between glacier and underlying geology → glacier drops load

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25
Q

What are characteristics of erratics?

A

Glacier-transported rock fragments that differ from local bedrock
Used to indicate the direction of glacial movement

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26
Q

What are the three types of periglacial regions?

A

Arctic continental, alpine, Arctic maritime
Vary in temp → vary in frequency / intensity of periglacial processes

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27
Q

What is the freeze-thaw cycle?

A

Temperatures fluctuate above and below freezing
When frozen, water expands 9 -10% → pressure on rocks → angular scree fragments

28
Q

What are mass movements in periglacial environments?

A

Solifluction: frozen winter water expands soil and segregates particles → spring melt can’t infiltrate permafrost → carries particles over and deposits as solifluction lobe or terracette

Frost creep: type of solifluction; particles rise on frozen ground and lower in elevation when melted → move downslope a little from gravity

Rockfall: often from freeze-thawing

29
Q

What are the types and layers of permafrost?

A

Continuous: mean -5°c to -50°c
Discontinuous: mean -1.5°c to -5°c
Sporadic: mean 0°c to -1.5°c

Active layer: above permafrost, intense mass movements
Depth determined by latitude, altitude, rock type, aspect (insulation from direction), vegetation, presence of “insulating” peaty soil

30
Q

How are pingos formed?

A

Isolated, conical hill up to 90m high and 800m wide in periglacial areas

Movement and freezing of water under pressure
Open system: water source is distant
Closed system: local water source, forms from expanding permafrost

31
Q

What is thermokarst?

A

Landscape of hummocks and wet hollows from sinking melting permafrost
Processes: thawing ice wedges → elongated depressions, thawing pingos → craters, removal of vegetation, fire, climate warming

32
Q

What is patterned ground?

A

Stone stripes, polygons, garlands in periglacial areas subject to intense frost action
Unsure of formation but frost heave, ice sorting, solifluction, vegetation affect it

33
Q

What are the two types of weathering in deserts?

A

Salt crystallization (decomposes rocks): two types of salt crystal growth
Temps around 26-28°c sodium sulfate and sodium carbonate expand → crack joints
Salt left from water evaporation expands

Disintegration: large daily temperature fluctuations + moisture causes exfoliation of rocks from expansion and contraction

Weathering causes regolith, unconsolidated layer above rock

34
Q

What are water sources in deserts?

A

Short downpours cause flash floods which erode and spread into a fan

Water table may be exposed by deflation to form an oasis

Rivers
Exotic / exogenous: sourced in a wetter environment and flow through
Endorheic: drain into an inland lake or sea
Ephemeral: seasonal or after storms

35
Q

What is wind action and how does it erode?

A

Wind action important where winds are: > 20 km/hr, turbulent, constant direction, long time

Near surface, speed reduced by friction but increases turbulence if ground is rough

Sediment moved by drag and lift forces especially if dry / loose / small and no veg

Types of wind erosion:
Deflation: removal of small material → stony desert
Abrasion: sandpaperness of windborn particles

36
Q

Describe 6 features of arid landscapes

A

Dunes: 1000s of km2 and 500+ m high; gentle slope windward steep leeward; shape depends on sand supply, wind, ground surface, veg; Barchan and crescent / U-shaped common and form around shrubs or rocks

Yardang: up to 100m high and many k long; heterogenous rock where soft strata is removed → long ridges
Zeugen: same but mushroom-shaped

Wadi: up to > 100 km; steep side and flat bottom river channel; from flash floods or pluvial

Mesa: plateau-like formed from former resistant rock

Butte: small mesa, final stage before total erosion

37
Q

What agricultural opportunities are there in arid areas?

A

(Semi) nomadism: wander with herds for water and pasture

Settled agriculture at oases, desalination plants, exotic rivers (maybe dams)

38
Q

What agricultural problems do arid areas face?

A

Little water and rainfall, high temps, sun, wind, overgrazing

Soil: dry bc negative water balance (evapotraspiration / stores > precip), infertile bc low biomass, minerals, and clay, not generally leached

Salinization in arid areas: poor drainage in valley / basin → surface run-off evaporates → leaves salts → plants die from wilting and reverse osmosis

39
Q

What are eight ways agriculture in arid areas be more sustainable?

A

Reduce herd size to limit pressure on veg
Solar panels not poop
Poop as fertilizer
Planting veg for animals
Efficient irrigation
Line irrigation channels with concrete to fight seepage
Build dams to collect water
Salt-tolerant crops

40
Q

Describe case study: the establishment of drought-resistent fodder

A

American aloe: little moisture, no insects, ups milk production in cows, soil conservation, after 10 years pole, wind break, juice used in tequila
Saltbush: protein, little water, all year, no irrigation after establishment, hard to propagate
Prickly pear: insect-resistant or fruit variety, annual pruning

Eastern Cape in South Africa is fragile and trialed plants in the 80s

41
Q

Describe case study: essential oils

A

South African essential oil market sells to Europe, US, Japan:
Southern Hemisphere, trade links to Europe, establishing agricultural production

Eastern Cape has many trials and would employ people:
Source of income, labor intensive / local, plants culturally accepted, plants unvaluable → not stolen, weed species removal good for grazing

42
Q

What are pros and cons of mineral extraction in arid areas?

A

Pros: large potential, earnings for countries / TNCs
Cons: remote, transportation, utilities at settlements, desalination plants, environmental impacts

43
Q

Describe case study: Rosemont Copper

A

Arguments for: copper needed for clean energy, mine imports 105% water needed, used land reclaimed, employ Arizonans, support linked industries

Arguments against: pollute air and water, visible from scenic route, destroy outdoor tourism and jobs, relatively small number of jobs, destruction of endangered species habitat and historic indigenous sites, traffic

44
Q

Why are periglacial areas fragile in exploitation?

A

Ecosystems susceptible to interference bc few species

Low temps → limit decomposition → long-lasting pollution

Permafrost easily melts from buidings / pipelines / veg change → soil sediment causes sinking

45
Q

Why are periglacial pipelines problematic?

A

Frost heave lifts structures from the ground → must be embedded deep which is expensive

Above ground pipes mess with wildlife

Zig-zag lines to allow for expansion / contraction and earthquakes

46
Q

Describe case study: oil mining in Alaska

A

Range of climactic conditions, lots of resources, oil, wildlife (Alaska National Wildlife Refuge)

Trans-Alaska goes north-south up near ANWR, want to drill in refuge, built on insulted supports above ground, ecosystem may not recover from a spill

47
Q

Describe case study: resource nationalism in Greenland

A

Greenland has political (subsidies from Denmark) and physical challenges (small pop, ice, inaccessible)
Cryolite mined 130 years for aluminum
2009 achieved resource nationalism - controls its own resources

2014 oil price collapse → too $ to mine in Arctic for companies → not independent

48
Q

Describe case study: tourism in Nepal

A

Area around Everest can’t supply resource demands of locals and tourists, waste generated
Tourism and (more so) climate change cause environmental problems
Can’t close mountain bc Sherpa livelihood

Tourism is continuously growing
Benefits: global economy integration; rise in foreign revenue to clear debts; up local income and employment; locals learn new skills
Costs: deforestation and roads cause run-off and flooding; destabilization of soil; destroy veg / habitat; litter / waste on trekking routes

49
Q

How does tourism and climate change threaten Mt. Everest?

A

Sherpa threatened by other groups → International Porters’ Protection Group
Increasing use of resources
Pollution in pits will threaten surrounding area
Road-building done unsafely
Congestion from overcrowding of rich tourists
Global warming will effect nine major river systems (1/3 of pop)

50
Q

Describe case study: Zuni Pueblo, NM, USA

A

Largest and most traditional NM Pueblo, famous for art and physical geography
Developing tourism in a way compatible with current lifestyle and community

Sociocultural concerns: limited external involvement, no hotel / casino, no documentation of religious events

Environmental concerns: water concerns, some guided development allowed

51
Q

What is desertification and how is it caused?

A

Land degradation in humid and semi-arid areas
Loss of biological and economic productivity
Climactic variability + unsustainable human activities

Causes
Natural drought
Overgrazing: veg lost in eating + trampling → soil and wind erosion
Overcultivation: yield decreases each season → expansion
Deforestation: trees striped or cleared for cultivation → erosion from rain and wind
Lack of mobility by govt; lack of environmental laws; bad water management; short-term land exploitation; civil strife / war

52
Q

What are consequences of desertification?

A

Environmental: loss of soil nutrients through wind and water erosion, change in veg and biodiversity, reduction in land for cropping and pasture, sedimentation of streams and reservoirs, expansion of sand dunes

Economic: reduced income from trad economy, decreased fuel wood → buy oil, increased dependence on food aid and poverty

Social / cultural: loss of trad knowledge and skills, forced migration, tension in migrant reception

53
Q

What are strategies to prevent desertification?

A

Overgrazing: improved stock quality → better yield without more animals; better area management
Vac programs improve survival → bigger deforestation: herds; population pressure prevents

Overcultivation: fertilizers; new or improved crops; improved forming methods
Cost to farmers; artificial fert hurts soil; need expensive fert, tech, skills; risk crop failure

Deforestation: agroforestry; social forestry with community; alternative fuels
Long growth time for benefits; expensive irrigation, maintenance, equipment

54
Q

Describe resource competition for the Arctic

A

North Pole has been melting and contains a lot of oil and methane
USA, Russia, and other countries are competing

Russian companies staking claims bc mainland oil fields are declining
Russia organizing naval bases and fleets for security
Control shipping lanes created by melting

55
Q

Describe case study: The Yamal Megaproject and the Nenets of Siberia

A

Nenets: nomadic reindeer herders of the Yamal Peninsula; threatened by climate change and oil / gas exploration; changing migration paths; decline in fish

Yamal Megaproject: pipelines built from Yamal across Russia / Europe; destroyed > 64k km2 of tundra → pollutes water / fish, harms reindeer migration, destroying Nenets’ way of life

56
Q

Describe oil conflicts in the Middle East

A

Energy control has caused many wars bc countries with a surplus of energy and transportation have strength and influence

ISIS is a Sunni extremist group with control over oil in parts of Syria and Iraq
Libya has a lot of oil but production is limited by political unrest and ISIS affiliated attacks
Yemen is located on the sea (good for oil transport) but is dealing with faction fighting, means ISIS could take over → reduced oil supply

57
Q

What is sustainable development?

A

Development that improves basic standards of living without compromising needs of future generations

58
Q

Describe sustainable farming practices in Bustan, Cairo, Egypt

A

Nile provides most of Egypt’s water but there’s resource strain and pollution

Aquaponics system increases yield by having crops and fish in one freshwater system
Water cycled from tilapia (gives 90% of nutrients, breathing ammonia → nitrogen) to crops to olive trees

90% less water used and faster growing
Labor-intensive and biological pest-control
Could be a method of income but it is expensive

59
Q

What is desalination?

A

Removes salt from seawater to make it potable and for irrigation
Costly bc requires a lot of energy
Increasing use in the Middle East (Israel, Saudi Arabia) and other areas (California)

60
Q

Describe case study: Desertec

A

Formed in 2009 as a German private-sector group to make worldwide power from desert solar profitable
Response to climate issues, but didn’t address root causes and capitalist energy models
Not sustainable development if it’s just for rich consumers
2013 fall in wind / solar price → Europe can produce internally → Desertec concluded

Still some solar projects in the Northern Sahara but TNCs are involved
TNCs can’t do sustainable development like communities

61
Q

What are four climate change coping strategies in Senegal?

A

Rising temps and aridity in the Sahel raises evaporation and causes hazards resulting in food insecurity and poverty

Senegal’s coping strategies:
Improve soil fertility by being careful with fertilizers
Improve efficiency of irrigation and pest control
Water and soil conservation to reduce run-off
Developing Great Green Wall of the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative: line of trees across southern Sahara to combat resource degradation and desertification

62
Q

Describe case study: the African Sahel

A

Sahel: semi-arid; between Sahara and humid sub-tropics
Indigenous folks adapt by using limited resources and migration
Diet varies by availability and condition

Since the 70s, drought has become worse bc greenhouse effect

Environmental effects of CC: food insecurity, pressure on water systems, flooding, disease from mosquitos

Sociopolitical effects of CC: conflict over resources, border disputes, forced migration → crowding, tension over energy supplies, international political tension

63
Q

What are eight ways to cope with water shortages in dry areas?

A

Traditional increased mobility
Manage size / composition of herds
Exchange livestock and products
Use drought-tolerant species
Use wild species and trees
Windbreaks and land enclosure to reduce wind erosion of soil
Irrigate with river water
Dune stabilization

64
Q

How does climate change impact cold environments?

A

Increasing temp most impacts periglacial areas where the average is ~freezing

Problems: flooded islands and coasts from melting permafrost, rising sea, coastal erosion; increased living expenses and dangerous sea ice for Inuit, trad way of life is hard; fish migration; exposed fossil fuels hurt people and env

Advantages: available farming; tourism; economic plus from exposed mining and fossil fuels

65
Q

How does climate change effect the ski industry?

A

Low-altitude European resorts may need to move up or use snow-makers to sustain guests
Concentrating people at higher and higher altitudes
Unreliable resorts will increase

66
Q

What factors enable adaptation to climate change?

A

Communication: diversified media and access to weather and hazard info
Transport: system that functions during extreme events
Finance: access to banking / credit / insurance to spread risk surrounding extreme events
Economic diversification: access to a range of economic and livelihood options
Education: language and skills to understand risks and shift livelihood strategies
Organization + representation: organize via diverse public / private / civil society orgs
Knowledge generation, planning, learning: social + scientific basis to learn, identify hazards, analyze risk, respond based on local conditions

IB Geography HL (7 decks)

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