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IB Geography HL > Urban Environments > Flashcards

Urban Environments Flashcards

1
Q

What is an urban area?

A

Built up area that forms part of a city or town

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2
Q

What are informal and formal activities?

A

Informal: untaxed, unregulated jobs

Formal: taxed, regulated activities

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3
Q

What is suburbanization?

A

Outward growth of towns and cities to engulf surrounding villages and rural areas
Creates middle-class suburbs
Caused by improved public transit, available land, lower cost of living

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4
Q

What is gentrification?

A

Improvement of residential areas by immigrants and residents, with an economic dimension like retailing; reinvestment of capital to inner-city

May occur around brownfields

May lead to social displacement of poor as prices increase

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5
Q

What is counter-urbanization?

A

Movement of population away from larger urban areas to smaller urban areas or just beyond the city

Causes: high prices, congestion, pollution, crime rates, lack of community and services

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6
Q

What is re-urbanization / urban renewal?

A

Development of activities to increase residential population densities with the existing built-up city

Revitalizes urban areas fallen into decay

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7
Q

What is the urban circular system?

A

A sustainable city where there is recycling, reuse / reduction of resources, renewable energy, measures to reduce ecological footprint

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8
Q

What is the urban ecological footprint?

A

Amount of land required to sustain population and resources and assimilate waste

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9
Q

How are urban places characterized?

A

Population size
Specific features, such as CBD or residential zones
Predominant economic activities
An administrative function

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10
Q

What is a site?

A

Site: land on which a settlement is built
Situation: settlement’s relationship with surrounding area

Desirable factors: water and timber availability, sunny south-facing slopes, potential for trade

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11
Q

Describe types of urban land use

A

Most places have an industrial or service role
Land use has changed pre / post industrialization (Caribbean fishing town → tourism)

Types: residential, industrial, services, open space, recreation, transport

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12
Q

Describe case study: land use in New York

A

4% commercial: midtown / downtown Manhattan, most jobs
4% industrial
Residential: most land is low-density; med- to high- is 2/3 of housing but 12%
7% public facilities
25% of open space is parks etc
8% vacant

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13
Q

What terms are used to describe the hierarchy of settlements?

A

Range: max distance people travel for good / service
Threshold: min # people for good / service to stay in business
Low-order goods: necessity or convenience bought frequently
High-order goods: luxury bought or used infrequently
Sphere of influence: area served by settlement

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14
Q

Describe the hierarchy of settlements

A

Individual household
Hamlet: low-order services
Village / town: low- and high-order services
City / millionare city (> 1 mil) etc: max # services

Sliding continuum of population / #of services

Each one has more sphere of influence

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15
Q

What are megacities and how do they develop?

A

> 10 million people
Result of: economic growth, rural-urban migration → many young adults for work → high birth
Swallow nearby towns and rural areas; multi-nuclei

Many in developing regions → new planning; env impacts; generate wealth

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16
Q

What are five functions of urban areas in the process of development?

A

Commercial: market, centers to convert to cash crops

Industrial: provides stimulus for development

Political: nationalist feeling

Administrative: economies for health and education

Social: intermixing weakens ties to traditions

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17
Q

What are nine problems cities cause?

A

High unemployment
Insufficient housing
Overloaded transportation systems
Air, water, noise pollution
Deteriorating infrastructure
Growing access inequalities between areas
Inadequate sanitation
Increasing social problems (crime, suicide, drug / alcohol abuse, family breakdown)
Deterioration of perceived quality of life

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18
Q

What factors effect the growth of urban settlements?

A

Areas favoring food production, trade routes, transportation

Attempts to reduce importance of some cities (gongju-yongi planned new capital of South Korea bc Seoul is overcrowded and attack target)

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19
Q

What is bid rent?

A

Land in center is most expensive bc is / was most accessible, limited amount
Price generally decreases further out, peaks around major intersections

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20
Q

What is the heirachy of traditional retail land use?

A

Low-order goods concentrated in neighborhood stores and shopping parades

High-order goods in high streets, department stores, central shopping areas

Out-of-town superstores and retail parks

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21
Q

What factors have caused a retail transition toward supercenters?

A

Demographic change: falling pop growth

Suburbanization and counter-urbanization of affluent households

Technology change: more people own deep-freezers

Economic change: increased standards of living, car ownership

Congestion and price in city centers

Increased accessibility

Social change: more women in paid work

Closure on high-streets → govt policy to return to central / neighborhood → inner-city redevelopment

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22
Q

What are ten characteristics of the central business district (CBD)?

A

Multi-story development
Concentration of retailing
Concentration of public transit
Concentration of offices
Vertical zoning
Functional segregation (pie-slice diagram), internal zoning
Few people live there
High pedestrian flows
Greatest traffic restriction
Changes over time

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23
Q

Where and why is industrial activity in cities?

A

Locations in city:
Inner-city near rail or canal
Near airport
Away from residents

Types of industries:
Skilled labor
Access to CBD (fashion)
Needing urban market (news)

Large cities bc:
Big manufacturing and market
Innovation
Available labor

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24
Q

How do physical factors effect the location of urban residential areas?

A

Wealthy near river bc views and recreation, or poor bc flooding
Same with high/low ground

In rich countries, building standards tend to make up for risks

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25
Q

How do land values effect the location of urban residential areas?

A

In most HIC cities high-dense residential is inner-city (usually low bc price)
Density decreases with space in suburbs

Often poor folks in inner-city bc employment → stuff around is expensive

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26
Q

How does ethnicity effect the location of urban residential areas?

A

Positive segregation: group gains together bc they support services
Negative segregation: groups excluded (redlining)

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27
Q

How does urban residential planning effect the location of urban residential areas?

A

Plans for social mix via a variety of mixed housing

“Edge cities” often gated by wealthy → mix doesn’t occur

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28
Q

Describe case study: cities in Latin America

A

Development patten different from the rest of the world

CBD around colonial core, commercial extension → “spine” of area with parks, upper-middle
Outside are recent suburbs with fewer services
Better-accessible older shanty housing compared to new

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29
Q

How is urban deprivation measured?

A

Physical indicators: quality of housing, pollution, crime

Social indicators: health levels/access to care, education standards

Economic indices: access to employment, income levels

Political indices: opportunity to vote, partake in community organization

30
Q

What is a slum household?

A

Typically on land not wanted by planners

1+ individuals living under the same root in urban area, lacking 1 or more:
Durable housing
Sufficient living space
Access to improved water
Access to improved sanitation facilities
Secure tenure

31
Q

What are the positives and negatives of living in a slum?

A

Positive:
Points of assimilation
Informal employment without commute
Strong sense of kinship
Low crime rates

Negative:
Lacks security of tenure
No basic services
Overcrowding
Hazardous sites
Poor levels of hygiene and sanitation

32
Q

What is the dual economy of the developing world?

A

Formal economy, often foreign-owned and for elite
Informal economy, local, labor-intensive → bazaar economy and street economy
Can work in both sectors

33
Q

Describe characteristics from the informal and formal sectors

A

Informal easy to enter
Informal indigenous inputs, formal foreign
Informal family property, formal corporate
Informal adapted tech, formal imported
Informal unregulated/competitive market, formal protected

34
Q

What is urbanization?

A

Increase in proportion of people living in urban areas
Causes: rural-to-urban migration, urban sprawl

S-curve tails at 80% → many HICs have falling urban population

35
Q

What is natural increase?

A

Birth rate > death rate
Often in cities bc youthful structure

36
Q

What is rural-urban migration?

A

People think they’ll be better off in urban areas → move to cities
Push factors: negs that cause movement away
Pull factors: attractions in another place

37
Q

What is urban sprawl?

A

Uncontrolled growth of urban areas
Limited by green belts

38
Q

Describe case study: gentrification and relocation in Cape Town, South Africa

A

Gentrification of Woodstock in Cape Town
Became seaside suburb in 1850s bc rail line, population grew
Stayed integrated during apartheid → POC moved in during 1970s and 80s

Urban renewal started in 90s, more young professionals and shops, businesses, etc

39
Q

Describe case study: a changing urban environment: Shanghai

A

Shanghai is very large; hub for information and most industries
11 themed satellite towns as growth points

Air and water transport, but mainly extensive metro lines and buses
Targets: public transport between any 2 parts of city center is 1 bus, < 60 min

High levels of water stress from demand, saltwater, pollution of agriculture and lack of treatment

Most waste is piled outside the city → use of incineration to destroy toxins and for energy

Strong base in telecommunications

40
Q

What is deindustrialization?

A

Long-term decline in manufacturing employment
Declining since 1950s

Causes:
Decline or increasing cost of materials
Automation
Increased competition
Falling demand

41
Q

What are the two types of deindustrialization?

A

Positive: industries reduce workforce to increase productivity via automation → more competitive

Negative: industries decline without productivity compensation

42
Q

Describe case study: urban deindustrialization: decline in Detroit

A

Was a large city bc car industries, now a lot of vacancy and fallen prices

Causes: falling car sales → less revenue, shrinking population, aging population → social costs

Lots of unemployment, illiteracy, crime
Attempts at revival in farms and art scene from low costs

43
Q

What factors effect the climate of an urban area?

A

Structure of air above area: more dust → more noxious fumes from industry

Structure of urban surface: heat-retaining materials, aspect, exposure

44
Q

What are the resultant processes of urban microclimates?

A

Radiation and sunshine:
Scattering short-wave, absorb long-wave; depends on screening by buildings
Haze from industry

Clouds and fog:
Higher incidence of cloud cover in summer bc convection, radiation fog in winter
Day temps .6°c warmer

Temperatures:
Heat energy retention / release → heat islands
1.5°c warmer on winter nights
Big local contrasts between sun and shade

Pressure and winds:
Severe turbulence around tall buildings, calm small streets

Humidity:
Decreases bc lack of moisture and high temps

Precipitation:
More intense storms bc less stability
Less snowfall

45
Q

Describe case study: Cheong Gye Cheon, Seoul, South Korea–the impact of river restoration on on urban microclimate

A

Stream area under highway, temp ~5° higher than city
Restoration has decreased temp, increased wind speed, no highway

46
Q

Describe case study: Air pollution in Delhi

A

Air pollution from diesel exhaust, construction dust, industrial emissions, household cooking and heating

Also a problem for smaller Indian cities
Rules rarely enforced

47
Q

What are some air pollution management strategies?

A

Burn less fossil fuels and use energy-efficient technology
Use public transit or carpool
Bike or walk
Use catalytic converters
Increase enforcement of emissions standards

48
Q

Describe case study: managing air pollution in Mexico City

A

Altitude causes lower pressure → higher combustion emissions
Pollutant smog blankets city from sun
Very expensive

Using more green roofs

Programs against air pollution:
Reduce use of private vehicles
Enforce engine maintenance standards
Improve fuel quality
Make catalytic converters compulsory

49
Q

What is the pattern of traffic congestion?

A

Transport performance index (TPI) 0-10
Peak congestion weekday morning and evening
Weekend is less severe but prolonged
Worse at beginning of school year, around holidays, etc

50
Q

What is the impact of traffic congestion on noise pollution?

A

Related to traffic volume, composition, speed, weather, road surface, barriers
Exposure to roads may cause people to exceed the recommended average noise levels

51
Q

Describe slum clearance in Rio

A

2016 olympics → property boom in central favelas, more outsiders
Displaced 170,000 people

52
Q

Describe contested land in Dharavi, Mumbai

A

Slum area home to thousands of micro-industries → means to escape poverty
Contested bc developers want to turn it into a business area, displacing 1 mil

53
Q

Where is urban crime most common?

A

Concentrated in most urbanized / industrialized areas, poorest working-class
Higher rates in deprived areas and where there are more commuters than residents

54
Q

What factors influence the development of a crime hotspot?

A

Typical attributes: young, single, minority, male, broken home, low-income and skill, unemployed, poor housing

Location:
Crime targets
Easy access
Residential land use
Lack of health centers, schools, rec areas, police stations

55
Q

Describe case study: urban crime in Zanjan, Iran and Kaduna, Nigeria

A

Islamabad: dense informal settlement in Zanjan, few facilities
Violence, drug abuse and trafficking

Higher rates of burglary and stealing in dense, poor-quality Badarawa-Malali district of Kaduna than high-income areas with higher car theft

56
Q

Describe case study: urban deprivation and regeneration in Barcelona

A

Two areas of deprivation: inner-city El Ravel and edge migrant housing
Deindustrialized in 70s and 80s → high unemployment
Overcome via economic transformation: entreprenurial and political leadership, public-private partnership, diversification of economy especially for World Cup
Continues to regenerate

57
Q

How can urban crime be managed?

A

More police officers
Greater use of security cameras
Improved street lighting
More available and women-only taxis when bars close

58
Q

What are the trends in urban growth projections?

A

% of pop in urban areas is increasing, highest in North America
All cities are growing, megacities and large cities fastest

59
Q

Describe characteristics of resilient cities

A

Economically productive, socially inclusive, environmentally friendly
Functioning transportation, energy, waste, water systems
High population → more vulnerable but less emissions and ops for infrastructure

60
Q

How do cities manage hazard risk?

A

2000 - NYC water supply contamination → financial incentive to industrialists / farmers
Smog → change to clean energy
Seismic events → zoning and building codes
Storm / flood risk → levees and sea walls; more infrastructure up
Greanspace, sustainability plans

61
Q

Describe case study: protecting Lagos: Eko Atlantic

A

Lagos: coastal metacity, at risk of erosion, 2/3 people in slums
Sea wall designed to stop erosion

Eko Atlantic: eco-city planned behind sea wall, would benefit wealthy
Govt should improve lives of people; project could increase erosion

62
Q

How can cities become sustainable?

A

Compaction: less space / stuff / sprawl, better transit
Use renewables
Conserve / reduce fossil fuels
Treat waste locally
Sufficient green spaces
Reuse / reclaim land
Active community involvement

63
Q

What is the Beddington zero energy development (BedZED)?

A

99 env-friendly homes in south London, 2000-2002
Solar panels, insulation, renewable / recycled materials from nearby, close to transit

Lower average space-heating requirements, hot water, water main, power, car mileage
Expensive to build

64
Q

Describe case study: Mazdar City

A

$22 bil planned eco-city for 2030 in UAE
All solar-powered, no cars, circulation via infrastructure
Supported by US govt, Greenpeace who said more emphasis on existing things

65
Q

What is the urban ecological footprint?

A

Land area to provide people’s resources: food, water, electricity, waste assimilation
Based on population’s consumption

66
Q

Describe case study: Tokyo’s ecological footprint

A

High density → more land availability compared to spread areas
Less needed infrastructure, resources

67
Q

Describe case study: environmental measures in Chicago

A

City Hall roof garden → cooler in summer, less sewer water, reduces heat island
CCAP 2008 → reduced C02 → hybrid buses, light colored repaving when needed

68
Q

What is C40?

A

83 megacities addressing climate change

Goals:
Improving public / personal transport
Efficient outdoor lighting
Reliable and efficient infrastructure and water
Retrofit offices/homes to be efficient

69
Q

What are some examples of non-car traffic management?

A

Cable-car system linking El Alto and La Paz, Bolivia; 85-90% use public transit

Bogotá, Colombia bus system specifically accessible for low-income communities

Helsinki and Hamburg becoming car free, greenspace and transit / people power

Venice and The Medina of Fez el Bali (Fez, Morocco) are car-free

70
Q

What is a “smart city”?

A

Investments in social and human capital, physical infrastructure, info / comm / tech → sustainability and high quality of life

Performs well in: economy, env, people, living conditions, governance, mobility

71
Q

Describe case study: Songdo International Business District, South Korea

A

2005 started brand-new smart city; LEED certified, sensors and tech, zoned to become international business hub
Songdo has greenspace, ways to reduce emissions / resources, etc

Cheongna (finance) and Yeongjong (logistics) also in free economic zone

IB Geography HL (7 decks)

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