F_Chapter 13: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM & IMMUNE SYSTEM Flashcards
(206 cards)
1
Q
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM includes _____and _____
Its 2 main organs
A
Lymphatic Vessels and Lymphoid Tissues/Organs
2
Q
transport fluids that have escaped from the blood back to the cardiovascular system
A
Lymphatic Vessels
3
Q
house phagocytic cells and lymphocytes–play a role in immunity.
A
Lymphoid Tissue
4
Q
fluid that escaped and is moved by the lympathic system
A
lymph fluid (or just lymph)
5
Q
Why is the lympathic system a low pressure system?
A
because it is pumpless system
* A Low-pressure, pumpless system
6
Q
How is the lymph transported throughout the body?
A
The lymph is transported through the milking action of the skeletal muscles and pressure changes in the thorax during breathing.
milking action: like when walking
pressure changes: like peristalsis
7
Q
it functions as an elaborate drainage system that picks up excess interstitial fluid (now referred to as Lymph) and
returns it to the blood
A
Lymphatic vessels
8
Q
the excess tissue fluid, and the plasma proteins that escape the blood MUST be carried back to the blood. Why?
How much insterstitial fluid can be created from the blood? How much is required blood volume of the body?
A
for the vascular system to have sufficient blood volume to operate
3 L interstitial fluid
5-6 L blood volume
9
Q
If the excess fluid is not returned and accumulates as interstitial fluid, it will result in _______
What is needed to ease edema?
A
edema
Edema can be eased by a hypertonic solution and decreasing AVP
10
Q
Lympathic vessels form what type of system that makes it similar to the heart?
What is the rule for the flow of Lymph? How is it made possible?
A
ONE-WAY SYSTEM
RULE: Lymph flows only towards the heart
This one-way system is made possible due to the existence of Minivalves within these vessels
11
Q
Disadvantage of One-Way System of the Lymphatic vessels
Partial Solution to the Disadvantage?
A
bacteria, viruses, and cancer
cells easily enter the lymphatics and use it to travel the body
Partly resolved by the existence of White Blood Cells (WBCs) that can also travel in the lymphatic system – and take shortcuts through the lymph nodes
12
Q
What happens to cancer cells when it flows in the lympathic system?
A
malignant cancer cells metastasize or spread throughout the body leading to sepsis
13
Q
Enlarged/swelling lymph nodes is a sign of?
A
infection
14
Q
type of WBC that specializes certain pathogens as targets
A
neutrophils
15
Q
it contains cells that help protect the body by removing foreign material such as bacteria and tumor cells from the lymphatic stream
A
LYMPH NODES
16
Q
It also provides a place where lymphocytes can be activated
A
LYMPH NODES
17
Q
lymphocytes created in the bone marrow are still ________
this is the term used for WBCs found in the bone marrow
A
naive or immature
18
Q
Where are lymphocytes activated?
A
lymph nodes?
19
Q
Cell population in lymph nodes
A
Macrophages and Lymphocytes
20
Q
the nodes, during inflammation/infection, usually get _____
it happens to the nodes when infected
what are the 2 possible cases for this?
A
swollen
- could be temporary (caused by infection)
- increase and never go down(cancer cells)
21
Q
What is the sign of cancer related to the lymph nodes
you drink something which results to a specific effect occuring in the lymph node
A
drinking antibiotic and then the lymph nodes shrink/mugamay
22
Q
internal framework of the lymph nodes
A
network of reticular connective tissue that provides a “headquarters” for lymphocytes as they monitor the lymphatic stream
23
Q
what provides a headquarters for lymphocytes as they monitor the lympathic system?
this is found what part of the lympathic system?
A
reticular connective tissue
lymph nodes
24
Q
Lymphocytes arise from the _________ but then migrate to the ________ and other _________, where they reproduce
further.
A
Lymphocytes arise from the red bone marrow but then migrate to the lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs, where they reproduce
further.
25
outer part of the lymph node which contains follicles
cortex
26
collections of lymphocytes that have germinal centers
## Footnote
this is found what part of the lympathic system?
follicles
## Footnote
Lymph nodes inside the cortex
27
inner part of lymph nodes, contains phagocytic macrophages
## Footnote
what phagocytic cells are meant by the question? what happens to these cells in this area?
central medulla
## Footnote
B and T cells.
This is where B cells mature into **plasma cells**
28
the only cell that creates/responsible for releasing ANTIBODIES (specific defense mechanism)
## Footnote
what happens to germinal centers when these cells are generated?
Plasma cells
## Footnote
germinal centers **enlarge** when B Lymphocytes are generating daughter cells – Plasma Cells.
29
a cell in the cortex of the lymph node constantly on the move between the blood, lymph nodes, and lymphatic stream – **to monitor**
T Lymphocytes
30
Is the flow of the lymph fast or slow? Is it an advantage? Why or why not?
## Footnote
the flow depends on?
The flow of lymph is **very slow**, which **allows time for the lymphocytes and macrophages to perform their protective functions.**
## Footnote
the flow of the lymph depends on the **milking action** and **breathing** of the body
31
A type of loose connective tissue together with Areolar & Adipose
Reticular Connective Tissue
32
Reticular Connective Tissue Consists of a delicate network of interwoven ___________ associated with ___________ (resemble __________)
Consists of a delicate network of interwoven **reticular fibers** associated with **reticular cells** (resemble **fibroblasts**)
33
The reticular connective tissue is limited to certain sites and forms the ___________, or the internal framework of an organ
stroma (bed or mattress)
34
# What tissue is this?
Binds together smooth muscle tissue cells
## Footnote
2 general functions of this tissue under this?
Reticular Connective Tissue
## Footnote
o **Support many free blood cells** (largely WBC called **lymphocytes**), in lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, the spleen, and bone marrow.
o **Filters and removes worn-out blood cells** (*spleen*) and Microbes (*lymph nodes*)
35
3 main areas where lymph nodes are located
1. Cervical nodes
2. Axillary nodes
3. Inguinal nodes
36
All lymphoid organs have
predominance of **reticular connective** tissue
and **lymphocytes**
37
What are the other lymphoid organs
✓ Spleen
✓ Thymus
✓ Tonsils
✓ Peyer’s Patches
✓ Appendix
✓ Bits of scattered lymphoid tissue
38
The only organ/part of the lymphatic system that filters thew lymph
## Footnote
Why?
Although ALL LYMPHOID ORGANS have roles in protecting the body, ONLY the **lymph nodes** filter lymph
## Footnote
since lymph doesn't flow in the other organs
39
**Filters and cleanses** blood of bacteria, viruses, & other debris
Spleen
40
provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation & immune surveillance
Spleen
41
msot important function of the spleen
Destroy worn-out red blood cells
42
This is the graveyard of RBC.
## Footnote
What happens after the RBCs are destroyed?
Spleen
## Footnote
After destroying worn-out RBCs, it returns some of their breakdown
products to the liver. (heme and globin)
43
functions in storing platelets and acts as a blood reservoir
## Footnote
What other organ functions as a blood reservoir (there are 2 in total)
Spleen
## Footnote
Spleen and Liver function as blood reservoir - this reservoir is used during accidents
44
Function of spleen in infants that is eventually lost later in life
## Footnote
What other organs have this function?
IN INFANTS, the spleen is an important **hematopoietic site** but will lose this function later in life
## Footnote
the sites include the bone marrow, spleen, and lungs
45
Produces thymosin to help program the growth of T lymphocytes
Thymus
46
As you get older, this organ gets smaller until fibrous tissue remains
Thymus
47
the function of the thymus is at peak level during
| age/time in life?
youth
48
Small masses of lymphoid tissue
* Trap and remove bacteria or other pathogens entering the throat
TONSILS
49
Term used for a congested and inflamed tonsils caused by bacteria
## Footnote
why is it inflamed? what possible measures can be done to the organ affected?
Tonsilitis
## Footnote
Inflamed because of the presence of bacteria; tonsil can be removed because it can do more harm than good (continuously infected)
50
Resemble tonsils; found in the wall of the distal small intestine
PEYER’S PATCHES
51
A tubelike offshoot of the proximal large intestine
## Footnote
It can also be removed like tonsils. Why?
APPENDIX
## Footnote
It can be removed but it still has functions in the body. Removed because its positive functions/effects is outweighed by the harm that it does to the body when infected
52
Macrophages in this organ are in an ideal position to capture and destroy harmful bacteria
Appendix
53
These 2 lymphoid organs help protect the intestine
Appendix and Peyer's Patches
54
A collection of small lymphoid tissues which include the Tonsils, Peyer’s Patches and Appendix
## Footnote
this collection of lymphoid tissue collectively acts to protect (2)
MUCOSA-ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE (MALT)
## Footnote
Collectively, they act as sentinel to protect the **respiratory and digestive tracts**
55
Location of the differnt lymphoid organs in the body
1. Tonsils (pharyngeal region)
2. Thymus (thorax)
3. Red Bone Marrow
4. Peyer's Patches (intestine)
5. Appendix (right inguinal?)
56
Highly specific resistance to disease
Immunuity/immune
57
The immune system is a functional organ system. meaning?
It doesn't have a specific location of function. It also doesn't have a single structure for its function
58
Also called Nonspecific Defense System
* Responds IMMEDIATELY to protect the body from all foreign
substances, whatever they are
## Footnote
When do we get innate immunity to function in our body? In what part of our life does is start functioning?
Innate Immunity
## Footnote
We are born with out innate defenses
59
How does the innate immunity help the adaptive defense
Innate immunity reduces the workload of the adaptive defense mechanisms by generally preventing the entry & spread of microorganisms in the body
60
Type of immunity: **mechanical barriers** that cover body surfaces and the **cells and chemicals** that act on the battlefronts to protect the body from invading pathogens
INNATE IMMUNITY
61
1st line of defense
## Footnote
It includes what?
SURFACE MEMBRANE BARRIERS
## Footnote
Includes the skin and mucous membranes, and their secretions
(1) Intact Skin
(2) Intact mucous membranes
62
Forms mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens and other harmful substances into body.
## Footnote
what line of defesnse? What's included in this?
Intact skin (EPIDERMIS)
## Footnote
1st line of defense
1. Acid Mantle
2. Keratin
63
Skin secretions make epidermal surface acidic, which inhibits
bacterial growth; sebum also contains bacteria-killing chemicals
## Footnote
what line of defesnse?
Acid Mantle
## Footnote
1st line
64
Provides resistance against acids, alkalis, and bacterial enzymes
## Footnote
what line of defesnse?
Keratin
## Footnote
1st
65
Form mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens. Not the intact skin
## Footnote
What line of defense? What's included in this?
Intact mucous membranes
## Footnote
1st line of defense
1. Mucus
2. Nasal Hairs
3. Cilia
4. Gastric juice
5. Acid Mantle of the Vagina
6. Lacrimal secretion (tears); saliva
66
Traps microorganisms in respiratory and digestive tracts.
## Footnote
What line of defense?
Mucus
## Footnote
1st line
67
Filter and trap microorganisms and other airborne particles in nasal passages.
## Footnote
line of defense?
Nasal Hairs
## Footnote
1st line
68
Propel debris-laden mucus away from lower respiratory passages.
## Footnote
line of defense?
Cilia
## Footnote
1st line
69
Contains concentrated hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes that destroy pathogens in stomach
## Footnote
line of defense?
Gastric juice
## Footnote
1st line
70
Inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi in female reproductive tract.
## Footnote
line of defense?
Acid mantle of vagina
## Footnote
1st line
71
Continuously lubricate and cleanse eyes () and oral cavity (); contain lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys microorganisms
## Footnote
line of defense?
Lacrimal secretion (tears); saliva
## Footnote
1st line
72
2nd line of defense
## Footnote
What's included?
Cellular and chemical defenses
## Footnote
1. Phagocytes
2. Natural killer cells
3. Inflammatory response
4. Antimicrobial chemicals
5. Fever
73
Engulf and destroy pathogens that breach surface membrane barriers; macrophages also contribute to immune response
## Footnote
What line of defense? What are included?
Phagocytes
## Footnote
2nd line: Neutrophil and Macrophage
74
Promote cell lysis by direct cell attack against virus-infected or
cancerous body cells; do not depend on specific antigen recognition.
## Footnote
line of defense?
Natural killer cells
## Footnote
2nd line
75
Prevents spread of injurious agents to adjacent tissues, disposes of pathogens and dead tissue cells, and promotes tissue repair; releases chemical mediators that attract phagocytes (and immune cells) to the area.
## Footnote
line of defense?
Inflammatory response
## Footnote
2nd line
76
Group of plasma proteins that **lyses** microorganisms, enhances phagocytosis by **opsonization**, and intensifies **inflammatory response.**
## Footnote
This is under what 2nd line of defense?
Complement
## Footnote
Antimicrobial chemicals
***Complement**
* Interferons
* Fluids with acid pH
77
Proteins released by virus-infected cells that protect uninfected tissue cells from viral takeover; mobilize immune system.
## Footnote
This is under what 2nd line of defense?
Interferons
## Footnote
Antimicrobial chemicals
- Complement
- **Interferon**
- fluids with acid pH
78
Normally acid pH inhibits bacterial growth; urine cleanses the lower urinary tract as it flushes from the body.
## Footnote
This is under what 2nd line of defense?
Fluids with acid pH
## Footnote
Antimicrobial chemicals
- Complement
- Interferon
- **fluids with acid pH**
79
Systemic response triggered by **pyrogens**; high body temperature
inhibits multiplication of bacteria and enhances body repair processes
## Footnote
This is under what line of defense?
fever
## Footnote
2nd line
80
natural bacteria found in the acid mantle of the vagina
## Footnote
Why does it live/survive in the vagina? What could be a reason of its death? What is its main function?
Lactobacillus acidophilus
## Footnote
It **survives** because of the acidic nature
It **dies** if the pH is not stable, thus girls need to maintain the acidic nature of the vagina
Its main **function** is that it prevents the growth of bad bacteria and fungi (UTI, yeast infection)
**It eats up all the nutrients thus no nutrients are given to possible bacteria**
81
enzyme found in lacrimal secretions that kills bacteria
lysozyme
82
What makes Natural killer cells different from B and T cells?
- it is found in the 2nd line of defense
- it is not a phagocyte
- it detects pathogens immediately
83
Why is an NK cell not a phagocyte?
Unlike phagocytes, it promotes cell lysis (burst) though 2 enzymes: perforin and grandzyme
84
2 enzymes found/produced in/by NK cells that help promote cell lysis
perforin: pokes cancer cells
granzyme: eat contents from the cancer cells
85
NK cells are indiscriminatory, it can attack even our own cells. Why does it not do that?
Our cells are not killed by NK cells because they have **INHIBITORS**
86
What does a cell release when its damaged?
## Footnote
these released substances serve as the body's _______
KIININ & HISTAMINE
## Footnote
Alarm system "Chemical alarm"
87
The release of Kinin, Histamine, and other chemicals (chemical alarm) when cells are damaged leads to
| 3 events
1. Blood vessels dilate
2. Capillaries become leaky
3. Neutrophils and then monocytes enter the area (Positive chemotaxis)
88
The dilation of blood vessels caused by the chemical alarms lead to ________ which also causes 3 events to occur(?)
**Increased blood flow in the area**
which causes **Redness**, **Heat**, and
**brings more nutrients** and **oxygen** to the area
89
heat from increased blood flow into the area causes
an increase in metabolic rate of tissue cells which leads to healing
90
What happens when capillaries become leaky because of the chemical alarms
| 2 events
1. Edema
2. Clotting proteins enter the area (creates a fibrin barrier leading to healing)
91
Edema caused by the leaking of capillaries lead to
| 2
## Footnote
how does edema cause these 2 events
- Pain
- Swelling
both lead to TEMPORARY LOSS OF FUNCTION or TEMPORARY LIMITATION OF JOINT MOVEMENT which both lead to healing
## Footnote
**pain** results from the increase of pressure which pushes the pain receptors
92
The first phagocyte to go to the injured/infected area? Who's the next?
## Footnote
time duration of arrival for each phagocyte?
**Neutrophils** and then **monocytes**
## Footnote
**Neutrohpil:** 3-6 hrs after infection; it waits for the
**Monocyte**: 12 hrs: finishes the job
Basically neutrohil is a weak phagocyte thus it transforms/replaced by a macropphage, a strong phagocyte
93
Positve chemotaxis caused by release of chemical alarms leads to
removal of damaged/dead tissue cells and pathogens from the area which leads to healing
94
instructions to create something to interfere with the entry of a virus
Interferons
95
define a virus
| is it alive/dead? cell/not cell?
## Footnote
how does it attack a cell?
A virus is dead outside the cell but alive when inside one.
It is not a cell; it is only a floating DNA covered with protein
## Footnote
it gets inside the cell,
its covering is broken,
dna gets inside nucles,
it incorporates its cell/dna or "hijack" the cell,
it uses the cell to create more copies of its own cell/dna/virus
96
What is the main purpose of a complement?
## Footnote
What is its end product?
Cell lysis
## Footnote
end product of complement: **Membrane Attack complex** (MAC)
97
how does a complement lyse microorganisms?
| name of the process
through Compliment fixation
## Footnote
an inactive protein activates when it attaches to something (like a bacteria, etc)
Compliment fixation ENHANCES Phagocytosis
98
how does a complement help fight bacteria through opsonization
it makes foreign pathogen **sticky** (since naturally slippery and bacteria)
the complement is attached to the bacteria and it is what the WBC holds for easy phagocytosis
99
A function of the complement that is similar with the positive chemotaxis
Intensifies inflammatory response
100
A function of the complement that is similar with the positive chemotaxis
Intensifies inflammatory response
101
Thermostat of the body
What triggers this to increase its temperature?
Hypothalamus
WBC releases Pyrogen that triggers the hypothalamus to increase the body's temperature.
102
How does heat kill a bacteria?
1. It directly kills the bacteria
2. Heat serves as an alarm for spleen and liver - if heat increases - they get and store the iron and zinc (nutrients required for the growth of bacteria)
103
Why is too much fever bad?
Proteins denature because of prolonged heat - the complex structure gets destroyed and proteins lose their function
104
Also known as the Specific Defense System
• Fights invaders that get past the innate defense by mounting an attack against one or more SPECIFIC foreign substance
Adaptive Immunity
105
What must happen first before the adaptive System can protect the body?
The adaptive system must first meet or be “sensitized” by an initial exposure to the antigen before it can protect the body
106
It REMEMBERS which invaders it has fought – has both specificity and memory
| type of immunity
Adaptive Immunity
107
2 main players in the Adaptive immunity
1. Antibodies
2. Lymphocytes
108
What makes up for the precision of the adaptive immunity's counterattacks?
Its lack of speed
109
TWO ARMS OF THE ADAPTIVE DEFENSE
## Footnote
What cells are found in each arm?
1. Humoral Immunity (Antibody-Mediated Immunity)
2. Cellular Immunity (Cell-Mediated Immunity)
## Footnote
1. Humoral - B cell + etc?
2. Cellular Immunity - only T cell
110
a cell type that functions in the cellular immunity (cell mediated-immunity)
## Footnote
it directly attacks or interacts with the pathogen
T cells
111
If B cell functions as a part of the humoral immunity, how does function indirectly?
Although B cell makes the antibody - the antibody is the one who functions/carries out its tasks
112
2 main factors that contribute to Antigen reaction
1. size
2. composition
113
The Humoral immunity is provided by _________ present in the body's humors or fluids
## Footnote
wha type of substance is this and where is it found?
Provided by antibodies (immunoglobulins)
## Footnote
Proteins found in plasma
114
Type of adaptive immunity when lymphocytes themselves defend the body * Protective factor is living cells
## Footnote
What type of lymphocyte is meant?
Cellular Immunity (Cell-mediated Immunity)
## Footnote
Only T cells (directlyy attack/interact with pathogen)
Not B cells because they are hummoral (indirect). although B cell makes the antibody, the antibody is the one that controls/carries out its function,
115
This type of adaptive defense also has cellular targets – virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign grafts
Cellular Immunity (Cell-Mediated Immunity
116
How can Cellular Immunity (cell-mediated immunity) act directly and indirectlty?
Act directly **(lysing the cell)** or indirectly **(release chemicals to activate other immune cells)**
117
118
Is any substance capable of provoking an immune response
## Footnote
REMEMBER!!
Immunogen
## Footnote
Not all antigens can provoke an immune response but all immunogens can!
NOT ALL ANTIGENS are IMMUNOGENS but ALL IMMUNOGENS are ATNIGENS!
119
Almost limitless variety of substances can act as antigens, including ________
| 4 substances
## Footnote
What substance evokes the strongest response? the weakest?
all foreign **proteins**, **nucleic acids**, large **carbohydrates**, and some **lipids** (small)
## Footnote
Among these substances, **Proteins** evoke the strongest response; they speed up/;inrease reaction rate
**Lipids** evoke the weakest response as they easily get inside the plasma membrane
120
Where are antigens usually found?
They are usually on the **plasma membrane** of bacteria, viruses, fungi and even pollen grains
121
Our body also have antigens on its own, however, our immune system have ______ that prevents these antigens to attack our own
## Footnote
What happens if these antigens are given to other people?
self-tolerance
## Footnote
However, if given to other people, it will be **antigenic to them**
122
Cells in the Adaptive system
| 2
## Footnote
Where do each cell type originate?
**1. Lymphocytes**
- NK (1st line), B, T Lymphocytes
**2. Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)**
## Footnote
LYMPHOCYTES
* All originate from **hemocytoblasts** in red bone marrow
123
# Cells in the Adaptive system
a unique lymphocyte; it is involved in the Innate defense rather than adaptive defense
NK cells
124
# Cells in the Adaptive system
produce antibodies (plasma cells) and oversee humoral immunity
B lymphocytes (B Cells)
125
# Cells in the Adaptive system
constitute-cell mediated arm of the adaptive defenses and DO NOT make antibodies
T Lymphocytes (T Cells)
126
# Cells in the Adaptive system
recognize & eliminate specific virus-infected or tumor cells
## Footnote
They respond to problems in the nucles thus they are found/called as?
T cells
## Footnote
Intracellular cells
127
# Cells in the Adaptive system
can target specific extracellular antigens or antigens outside (on plasma or floating membrane)
B cells
128
# Cells in the Adaptive system
Describe the T cells that go out of the bone marrow
| 2
immature (naïve) and are NOT immunocompetent
129
# Cells in the Adaptive system
Where does a T cell develop/activate?
## Footnote
What are required of them, before they can go out (what do they need to learn?)
It develops/acitivates in the **THYMUS**
## Footnote
LESSONS LEARNED:
1. learn how to **identify foreign material**
2. **specialization** (specifiy the target antigen)
3. **Internship** (in lymph nodes, spleen, & other lymphoid tissues)
130
where is the concept of self-tolerance derived from?
## Footnote
What is its significance?
The first lesson learned by T cells in the Thymus: To identify a foreign material
## Footnote
It prevents lymphocytes from attacking our own cells leading to autoimmune diseases (cells attack our own if they can't identify)
131
# Cells in the Adaptive system
develop their immunocompetence in the bone marrow but is activated in a different site/organ
B cells
132
term that means that a lymphocyte can respond to a specific antigen by binding to it with antigen-specific receptors that appear on the lymphocyte’s surface
Immunocompetence
133
# Cells in the Adaptive system
DO NOT respond to specific antigens
* Instead, play an essential role in activating the lymphocytes that respond to specific antigens
ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS (APCs)
134
Major role of Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)
engulf antigens and then present fragments of them on their own surfaces where they can be recognized by T cells
## Footnote
**They present antigens to the cells that will deal with the antigens**
135
Major types of APCs include
## Footnote
The best or most effective APC (Antigen-presenting cell)? why is it the best?
Dendritic Cells, Macrophages,
B Lymphocytes
## Footnote
Dendritic cells are the most effective
* since they can also **migrate** to secondary lymphoid organs coupled with their **long extensions** that are very efficient antigen catchers
136
Why/How does the body recognize bacteria and pathogen without knowing everything about the bacteria?
Through APC (Antigen Presenting Cells)
## Footnote
these engulf antigens --> show the fragments to lymphocytes --> lymphocytes are activated
137
When APCs present antigen, they Activate ________ which in turn release chemicals that will also activate the ____________ to become the ____________ – phagocytize and secrete bactericidal chemicals
When APCs present antigen, they Activate **T Cells** which in turn release chemicals that will also activate the **macrophages** to become the **“true killers”**– phagocytize and secrete bactericidal chemicals
138
# type of cell
a key link between innate and adaptive immunity
Dendritic Cells
139
When an immunocompetent but still naïve B cell encounters an
antigen, it will further develop and become ________ or if they don't, they become ____________
## Footnote
these are the ones that are creating antibodies
Plasma Cell
Memory Cell
## Footnote
Plasma Cells
140
# Type of cell
responsible for the faster **secondary humoral response**– faster, longer, stronger
capable of responding to the same antigen if they see it again
## Footnote
what is its previous cell type?
Memory
Cells
## Footnote
B cells
141
The phase that can last for almost a week in which there is zero antibody concentration in blood plasma
Lag phase
142
Cell activated in:
- Primary Response?
- Secondary Response?
Cell activated in:
Primary Response: **activated B cells** (Plasma or Memory B cell)
Secondary Response: **Clone** of cells identical to ancestors (more plasma and memory)
143
Humoral Immunity can either be ______ or ______
## Footnote
Which are actively making antibodies and which functions by receiving premade antibodies
Active or passive
| Naturally acquired or aritificially acquired
## Footnote
**Active** are actively making antibodies and **Passive** functions by receiving premade antibodies
144
Active vs Passive Humoral immunity
## Footnote
1. How is it naturally acquired?
2. How is it artifically acquired?
3. Length of effectivity (long/short term)
4. Are B cells activated?
**Active**
- Naturally acquired through infection/contact with pathogen
- Artifically acquired through vaccines; dead or attenuated pathogens (Sinovac & pfizer)
- long term
- B cells are activated?
**Passive**
- Naturally acquired through antibodies passed from mother to fetus via placenta; or to infant in her milk
- Artifically acquired though injection of donated antibodies (GAMMA GLOBULIN) (ex: Hepa vax)
- short term
- B cells are not activated (since antibodies are not exposed to antigens)
145
Antibodies are also referred to as ___________ and they constitue the ___________ part of blood properties
## Footnote
Do they bind specifically or not? Do they destroy directly or not?
Anitbodies are also referred to as **Immunoglobulins (Ig)** and they constitute the **gamma globulin** part of blood proteins
## Footnote
Binding **specifically** with a particular antigen
Do **not destroy directly**
146
the function of antibodies is to Inactivate antigens through
| 5 ways
## Footnote
What is the most important?
- complement fixation
- neutralization
- agglutination
- opsonization
- precipitation
## Footnote
MOST IMPORTANT:
- Complement Fixation
- Neutralization
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# function of the antibody
this occurs when antibodies bind to specific sites on bacterial exotoxins (toxic proteins released by bacteria). They **prevent the exotoxins from binding to body cells.**
## Footnote
What do these exotoxins do?
What exactly do antibodies do in this function?
Neutralization
## Footnote
Exotoxins kill healthy cells once they attach to them
Antibodies surrounds the exotoxins to prevent them from attaching to healthy cells (basically they neutralize its function)
148
Toxic proteins released by bacteria that kill healthy cells once they attach to them
Exotoxins
149
# function of the antibody
is the cross-linking of antigen-antibody complexes from **cell-bound antigens** (seen on top of plasma membrane)
## Footnote
How does this function make it easier for WBCs to attack pathogens?
Agglutination
## Footnote
Easier for WBCs to attack since it results to clumping
150
what is the function of Antibodies in relation to the function of WBCs
antibodies only assist in the attack; they do not directly attack pathogens
151
is the cross-linking of antigen-antibody complexes from **soluble antigens** that become so large that they become insoluble and settle out of solution.
## Footnote
What are soluble antigens?
Precipitation
## Footnote
**Soluble antigens** are antiogens that **float on its own**
152
What makes Agglutination and Precipitation functions of the Antibody similar in principle?
These agglutinated and Precipitated antigen molecules are **easier to capture and engulf through the body’s phagocytes**
153
5 Classes of Immunoglobulins
## Footnote
1. What is the largest?
2. What is the most abundant?
1. IgM (Mew) - largest
2. IgA (Alpha)
3. IgD (Delta)
4. IgG (Gamma) - most abundant
5. IgE (Epsilon)
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A class of antibody that has 5 antibodies
## Footnote
What do you call the 5 antibodies together attached to B cell?
What do you call only one of the antibodies free in plasma?
IgM (Mew)
## Footnote
**Monomer:** the 5 antibodies together *ATTACHED TO B CELL*
**Pentamere:** only one of the antibodies *FREE IN PLASMA*
155
# Class of Antibody:
When bound to B cell membrane, serves as antigen receptor; **first** Ig class released by plasma cells during **primary response**; potent agglutinating agent; fixes complement.
IgM
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what do you call the antibodies in the IgA class?
| (their structure)
## Footnote
what are examples of this class and where are they found?
dimer
## Footnote
**Monomer** in plasma
**Dimer** in secretions
- saliva, tears, intestinal juice, and milk
157
# Class of Antibody:
Bathes and protects mucosal surfaces from attachment of pathogens.
IgA
158
# Class of Antibody:
Its true function is still unknown Believed to be cell surface receptor of immunocompetent B cell; important in **activation of B cell.**
## Footnote
where is it found?
IgD
## Footnote
It is always attached to B cell
159
# Class of Antibody:
Main antibody of both primary
and **secondary responses**;
**crosses placenta** and provides passive immunity to fetus; fixes complement.
IgG
160
# Class of Antibody:
What class of antibody is used in vaccines; it is long lasting
IgG
161
# Class of Antibody:
Binds to mast cells and basophils
and **triggers release of histamine** and other chemical mediators of inflammation and some allergic responses.
## Footnote
where is it found (or how is it produced?)
IgE
## Footnote
Secreted by plasma cells in skin, mucosae of gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, and tonsils
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Lymphocyte that resides in the lymph nodes, spleen, or other lymphoid tissues, where it is
induced to replicate by antigen-binding and helper T cell interactions; its progeny (clone members) form plasma cells and memory cells.
B CELL
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Antibody-producing “machine”; produces huge numbers of the same antibody (immunoglobulin); specialized B cell clone descendant
Plasma Cell
164
A T cell that binds with a specific antigen presented by an APC; it **stimulates the production of other immune cells**(cytotoxic T cells and B cells) to help fight the invader; **acts both directly and indirectly by releasing cytokines**.
Helper T cell
165
It is the most important T cell
## Footnote
Why?
Helper T Cell
| **DIRECTOR/MANAGER T CELL**
## Footnote
It is the most important T cell because it controls the population of B cells and Cytotoxic T cells
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Activity *enhanced by helper T cells*; its specialty is *killing cells with intracellular antigens* (like viruses or some bacteria), as well as body cells that have become **cancerous**; involved in **graft rejection.**
## Footnote
its also called the?
Cytotoxic T cell
## Footnote
Also called the **Killer T Cells**
167
**Slows or stops the activity of B and T cells** once the infection (or attack by foreign cells) has been conquered. Thought to be important in **preventing autoimmune diseases.**
## Footnote
From this, what could be a possible contributing factor to having an autoimmune disease
Regulatory T cell
## Footnote
Possible cause of autoimmune disease is decreased Regulatory T Cells
since they function to prevent B and T cells from attacking our own body cells
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What 2 cells both attack pathogens through cell lysis with cytotoxins
## Footnote
what's their difference?
Cytotoxic T Cell and NK cells
## Footnote
**NK cell** (2nd line of defense) - non-specific
**Cytotoxic T cell** (3rd line of defense) - specific
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Descendant of an activated B cell or T cell; generated during both primary and secondary immune responses; may exist in the body for years thereafter, enabling it to respond quickly and efficiently to subsequent infections or meetings with the same antigen.
Memory cell
170
Any of several cell types (macrophage, dendritic cell, B cell) that engulfs and digests antigens that it encounters and presents parts of them on its plasma membrane for recognition by T cells bearing receptors for the same antigen; this function, antigen presentation, is essential for normal cell-mediated responses. Macrophages and dendritic cells also release chemicals (cytokines) that activate many other immune cells.
Antigen-presenting cell
(APC)
171
Protein produced by a B cell or its plasma-cell offspring and released into body fluids (blood, lymph, saliva, mucus, etc.), where it attaches to antigens, causing neutralization, opsonization, precipitation, or agglutination, which “marks” the antigens for destruction by phagocytes or complement.
Antibody (immunoglobulin)
172
Chemicals released by sensitized T cells, macrophages, and certain other cells
Cytokines
173
# Cytokines:
inhibits” macrophage migration and keeps them in the local area, and regulates the production of several other proinflammatory
cytokines.
Migration inhibitory factor (MIF)
174
# Cytokines:
stimulates T cells and B cells to proliferate; activates NK cells.
Interleukin 2
175
# Cytokines:
enhance antibody formation by plasma cells.
Helper factors
176
# Cytokines:
suppress antibody formation or T cell–mediated immune responses (interleukin-10 transforming growth factor and others).
Suppressor factors
177
# Cytokines:
attract leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) into inflamed area.
Chemotactic factors
178
# Cytokines:
secreted by lymphocytes; helps make tissue cells resistant to viral infection; activates macrophages and NK cells; enhances maturation of cytotoxic T cells.
Gamma interferon
179
Like perforin (it pokes holes), causes cell killing; attracts granulocytes; activates T cells and macrophages.
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
180
Group of bloodborne proteins activated after binding to antibody-covered antigens; when activated, complement causes lysis of the microorganism and enhances inflammatory response.
Complement
181
Substance capable of provoking an immune response; typically a large, complex molecule not normally present in the body.
Antigen
182
Perforin, granzymes—cell toxins released by cytotoxic T cells and NK cells.
Cytotoxins
183
2 types of adaptive immune response
## Footnote
How do antigens Activate B and Cytotoxic cells during 1st exposure?
During 2nd exposure?
1. humoral (antibody-mediated) adaptive immune response
2. Cellular (cell-mediated) adaptive immune response
## Footnote
**Antigens Activate B and Cytotoxic cells during 1st exposure**
- Macrophage --> APC --> Helper T cell --> Cytotoxic or B cell)
- (humoral) Free antigens directly activate B cell to Plasma cells;
- (Cellular) Antigens displayed by infected cells activate cytotoxic T cells
**During 2nd exposure**
- Memory T cell stimulate Memory B and T cells to activate Plasma cells (humoral) and Cytotoxic cells (cellular) respectively
184
Who activates the B and cytotoxic T cells most of the time during adaptive immune responses?
Helper T Cells
185
# HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE:
In severely infected areas, the “battle” will take a toll on both sides
* This is when an infection leads to the formation to the creamy, yellow fluid known as Pus
ABSCESS
186
Pus is a mixture of the following:
| HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE: ABSCESS
✓ Dead and dying neutrophils and macrophages
✓ Broken-down tissue Cells
✓ Living and dead pathogens
187
If inflammatory response FAILS to fully clear the area of debris, the sac of pus may separate from the tissue area and isolate itself by forming a wall→ _________
| what do you call the wall
Forming an **abscess**
188
What is necessary for the healing of an abscess
**Surgical drainage** of abscesses is often necessary before healing can occur
189
# HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE:
Abnormally vigorous immune responses in which the immune system causes tissue damage as it fights off a perceived “threat” that would otherwise be harmless to the body
## Footnote
what is a type of antigen from those producing normal immune response
ALLERGIES (HYPERSENSITIVITIES)
| **Most of the time, people do not die of allergies**
## Footnote
Allergen
190
3 types of Allergies
## Footnote
Which is the most common type? Rare?
1. ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVTY (IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVTY)
2. ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK
3. DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITIES
## Footnote
Most common is ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVTY (IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVTY)
Anaphylactic Shock is RARE
191
# TYPES OF ALLERGIES:
After sensitization to a particular allergen, this type of response is
triggered when that allergen is encountered again. It will release a flood of histamine which causes small blood vessels to dilate and become leaky
## Footnote
Histamine is to blame for what common symptoms:
What other symptom may occur?
ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVTY (IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVTY)
## Footnote
Histamine is largely to blame of **common symptoms**: Runny nose, watery eyes, itchy, reddened skin
**Asthma** may also appear as bronchioles contract due to the allergen
192
What causes the bronchioles to contract in ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVTY (IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVTY)
Allergens
193
Treatment for ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVTY (IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVTY)
Over-the-counter (OTC) Anti-Allergy Drugs which have **antihistamines**
194
# TYPES OF ALLERGIES:
BODYWIDE, SYSTEMIC, ACUTE ALLERGIC RESPONSE. Occurs when allergen directly enters the blood and circulates rapidly through the body
The response is usually the same, but since it is body-wide, the outcome is life threatening
## Footnote
what is an example situation for this type of allergy? What other triggers are common?
ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK
## Footnote
**Example:** Bee stings, spider bites, or injection of foreign substances
**FOOD ALLERGIES** may also trigger this condition – peanut and seafood allergies; **fatal**
195
Treatment for ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK
Epinephrine, found in EpiPen Shots, is the drug of choice to reverse the effects
196
# TYPES OF ALLERGIES
Mediated mainly by a special subgroup of helper T Cells, cytotoxic T Cells, and macrophages
## Footnote
How many days does it appear?
DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITIES
## Footnote
Take much longer to appear (1 to 3 days)
197
# TYPES OF ALLERGIES :
Instead of histamine, the chemicals mediating the reactions are cytokines released by activated T cells. Hence, antihistamine drugs are NOT HELPFUL against this type
DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITIES
198
what is used to provide relief to Dealayed Hypersensitivities type of allergy
## Footnote
example of this allergy?
Corticosteroid Drugs
## Footnote
**Allergic Contact Dermatitis** which follow skin contact with **poison ivy**, some heavy metals (lead, mercury) and certain cosmetic and deodorant chemicals
199
# HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE:
Immune system loses the ability to distinguish friend from foe
* Body produces auto-antibodies & sensitized T cells attack own tissues
* It’s the person’s own immune system producing the disorder
* Current therapies include treatment that depress certain aspects of the
immune response
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
200
Most common autoimmune diseases:
| define each
*** Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)** – systematically destroys joints
*** Myasthenia Gravis** – impairs communication between nerves and skeletal muscles
*** Multiple Sclerosis (MS)** – destroys white matter (myelin sheaths) of the brain and spinal cord
*** Grave’s Disease** – produce excessive thyroxine in response to autoantibodies that mimic TSH
*** Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus** – destroys beta cells, resulting in deficient production of insulin
*** Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)** – a systemic disease that occurs mainly in young women and particularly affects the kidneys,
hearts, and skin
*** Glomerulonephritis** – a severe impairment of kidney function due to acute inflammation
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# HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE:
Include both congenital and acquired conditions
* The production or function of immune cells or complement is abnormal
## Footnote
examples?
IMMUNODEFICIENCIES
## Footnote
Examples: SCID and AIDS
202
# Type of Immunodeficiency:
**Most devasting** congenital immunodeficiency condition
* There is marked **deficit of both B and T cells**
* Since T cells are absolutely required for normal operation of adaptive system → Afflicted children have essentially no protection against pathogens of any type
SEVERE COMBINED
IMMUNODEFIENCY DISEASE (SCID)
203
# Type of Immunodeficiency:
Minor infections are lethal to people with this imbalance
## Footnote
Interventions may include?
What happens if there are no interventions?
SEVERE COMBINED
IMMUNODEFIENCY DISEASE (SCID)
## Footnote
* Interventions: Bone marrow transplant and umbilical cord blood transfusion – **provide stem cells**
Without such interventions, the only way is to put the person behind protective barriers such as a **plastic bubble** that keep out all infections
204
# Type of Immunodeficiency:
205
# Type of Immunodeficiency:
Currently the most important and most devasting of the acquired immunodeficiencies
* Cripples the immune system by interfering with the activity of the
**helper T Cells**
## Footnote
how is it commonly transferred from one person to another?
ACQUIRED IMMUNE
DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS)
## Footnote
Transferred from sexual intercourse
206
The overall process done by a complemeent to form a certain product that initiates cell lysis via pore formation
## Footnote
What do you call the product?
Complement Cascade system
## Footnote
Membrane Attack complex (C5b-9)
