Final Flashcards
(271 cards)
1
Q
Carolus Linnaeus
A
developed the scientific naming method “Binomial Nomenclature”
2
Q
Robert Hooke
A
created compound microscope
father of cell theory
3
Q
Antony Van Leeuwenhoek
A
created the first microscope able to visualize microbes
4
Q
Ignaz Semmelweis
A
proved handwashing was a good idea
5
Q
Louis Pasteur
A
used an s-shaped flask to disprove the SG theory and was the one that was credited as the one to prove the biogenesis theory
6
Q
Robert Koch
A
proved bacillus anthracis caused Anthrax
developed aseptic lab techniques
7
Q
Edward Jenner
A
discovered that exposure to cowpox protects against smallpox
created first vaccine (smallpox)
8
Q
Alexander Fleming
A
who discovered penicillin?
9
Q
why is this class important?
A
learning how to control microbial growth, keeping food spoilage at a minimum, and how microbes are good for us
10
Q
what are the rules for genus species naming
A
genus (first word)
species (second word)
has to be italicized or underlined
first word has to be capitalized
you can abbreviate after naming once
11
Q
Are viruses alive? Why or why not?
A
no they are not alive.
viruses are not alive because they’re not made of cells, they don’t have a metabolism
12
Q
what experiment did pasteur performed to disprove spontaneous generation.
A
made an s-shaped flask in order to let air in to prove that it wasn’t the air causing microbial growth
13
Q
antibiotics
A
a compound produced of one living thing (microbes) to block the growth of other microbes
14
Q
What drug was the first “magic bullet” that was used to kill a pathogen without killing the host? How many attempts did it take to create it?
A
salvarsan - arsenic based compound to treat syphilis
took 606 attempts
15
Q
What year did Fleming discover penicillin? In what year was it mass produced and put into use?
A
discovered in 1928
1944 is when is was mass produced at put to use
16
Q
recombinant DNA
A
when you take DNA from more than 1 source and put it together
ex: genetically modifying bacteria to produce products
17
Q
bioremediation
A
using microbes to help clean up the environment
ex: microbes that can help with oil spills
18
Q
biotechnology
A
use of microbes to improve human life
ex: yogurt, beer, cheese
19
Q
What is the PRIMARY way that our normal microbiota protects us? What are some other reasons that we appear to need it?
A
competitive exclusion - good microbes take up space so they protect you
they also produce vitamins, control the growth of other microbes using antimicrobial compounds, lowers the pH
20
Q
What is a biofilm? Why are they a problem for us? How do they help microbes survive (2 or 3 different ways)?
A
a capsule or “blanket” that covers an entire community of microbes is biofilm
they’re a problem for us because it keeps them safe from antibiotics or immune system, its hard to get rid of them all (which you have to do)
they help the microbes by sharing nutrients, DNA
21
Q
What does the term compound in compound light microscope mean?
A
compound means multiple lenses, doesn’t include objective lenses, means (eye pieces + objective lenses)
22
Q
scanning power objective magnification (small one)
A
4x
23
Q
The ocular lens has a magnification of
A
10x
24
Q
low power objective magnification
A
10x
25
high dry power objective magnification
40x
26
oil immersion objective magnification
100x (total 1000x)
27
Do shorter or longer wavelengths provide better resolution?
shorter wavelengths (why electron microscopes provide better resolution than light microscopes)
28
Why is oil needed while using the oil immersion lens?
the oil has the same refractive index as glass which keeps light from bending or refracting too much
29
3 key features about the transmission electron microscope
sees internal structures
magnification of 100,000x
resolution of 50 picometers
30
A capsule stain is an example of a negative stain. What does that mean?
staining the background in order to visualize a structure
31
3 key features about the scanning electron microscope
sees surfaces in 3d
magnification of 10,000x
resolution of 10 nanometers
32
What are the 4 steps in the gram stain? What does the gram stain tell us about gram-positive and gram-negative cell walls?
1) crystal violet stain (primary stain)
2) iodine (mordant). crystal violet and iodine become a complex and attach onto structures
3) decolorizer (alcohol). gram + cells remain purple. gram - cells become colorless
4) counterstain (safrin). stains everything red. gram + cells are still purple. gram - cells are red
33
What is the key genus of organism that we are looking to identify with the acid-fast stain?
mycobacterium
34
What 2 types of organisms produce spores that can be identified with a spore stain?
clostridium and bacillus
35
resolution
the ability of the lenses to distinguish two points
36
the _______ the wavelength the ________ the resolution
shorter, greater
37
reflection
when light strikes a surface and bounces off
38
why do we use immersion oil?
to get better resolution, without it light rays are going to bend and refract
39
immersion oil has the same refractive index as
glass
40
electron microscopes have no...
lenses
41
what are the 2 different electron microscopes
scanning and transmission
42
What is the KEY difference (of several) between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
eukaryotes have a nucleus
prokaryotes do not
43
How many chromosomes do bacteria have? What is the shape?
1 chromosome thats a circle
44
How much smaller are bacteria than the average eukaryotic cell?
30-50 times smaller
45
strepto
chains
46
staphylo
clusters of bacteria
47
What is a neatly organized glycocalyx called? Why does it increase virulence?
glycocalyx is a sticky sugar coating
neatly organized is called a capsule
increases virulence because the capsule evades phagocytosis
48
Who has the more complex flagella motor, bacteria or human sperm?
bacteria because it uses a rotary motor
49
What type of bacteria have axial filaments?
spirochetes (cork-screw shaped)
50
What is the function of fimbriae? Pili (sex pilus)?
fimbriae is used for attachment
pili are used for transferring DNA
51
What cell structure used for movement do bacteria NOT have?
cillia, they rely on flagella
52
What is the key feature of a gram-positive cell wall? How about a gram-negative cell wall?
gram + cell walls have a THICK peptidoglycan cell wall
gram - cell walls have a thin peptidoglycan cell wall but have a lipid outer membrane
53
What makes the cell wall of Mycobacterium different than most bacteria?
it has a waxy material in their cell walls called "mycolic acid"
54
What key ingredient is missing in bacterial plasma membranes which is the primary reason that almost all of them need a cell wall to keep from bursting?
cholesterol
55
What is the shape of a bacterial ribosome (in svedburgunits)? How does that differ than most human ribosomes?
bacteria are 70S ribosomes
a
humans are 80S ribosomes (we do have 70S ribosomes in the mitochondria
56
explain how bacterial endospores work
living organisms but "paused"
survive in hostile environments
bacillus and clostridium species can form spores
waits for environment to improve before coming back alive
57
why are spores protected
dehydrated
hibernate for thousands of years
covered with a thick coat
58
what are the 2 different types of phospholipid bilayers?
hydrophilic --> water loving head
hydrophobic --> water fearing tails
59
bacterial cell membranes are lacking what...
cholesterol
60
cytoplasm
the "guts" of a cell
61
plasma membrane
the bouncer of a cell
what we need goes, what we dont need leaves
62
nucleous
where ribosomal RNA is produced
63
nucleus
houses and protects DNA and continues protein synthesis
64
nuclear pore
openings in the nucleus so RNA can leave & fine ribosomes
65
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
is covered in ribosomes
modifies and packs proteins
66
smooth ER
not covered in ribosomes
makes lipids, carbs, and inactivates toxins
67
cillia
moves cells or moves material across the structure of cells
68
microvilli
increase surface area
69
Golgi apparatus
primarily modifies and tags products that will be shipped out to a cell
70
peroxisomes
break down fat and other organic compounds
71
lysosome
digestive system of the cell
breaks down bacteria, damaged organelles, food
72
microtubules and microfilaments
key to the cytoskeleton
filament is a solid structure
tubules is hollow
73
mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell
where 95% of ATP comes from
74
ribosomes
site of protein synthesis
bacteria has 70S
humans have 80S
75
free ribosomes
make proteins for the cell
76
fixed ribosomes
make proteins that leave the cell
77
centrioles
needed for mitosis and cell division
78
flagella
used for movement
like not bacteria's rotary movement
79
metabolism
the sum of all chemical and physical processes that occur in an organism
catabolism + anabolism
80
Anabolism
any part of your metabolism that requires energy and leads to growth
81
catabolism
taking large things and breaking them down, releases energy
ex: digestion
82
In what form is much of our energy lost?
heat
83
Remember the 2 key differences between respiration and fermentation
respiration (what humans do): lots of energy produced but useless low energy waste products
fermentation: only a little bit of energy produced but useful high energy waste products (ex: milk --> yogurt)
84
Of the 4 nutritional types of all living things, what is the most important one for us to understand?
chemoheterotrophs (what humans are & what most bacteria are): get energy from chemicals, other feeders meaning that they consume other things
85
the 2 key electron carriers are...
NAD (worth 3 ATPs as NADH)
FADH(worth 2 ATP as FADH2)
86
glycolysis steps
1) 1 glucose becomes 2 pyruvate
2) net gain of 2 ATP (spend 2 to make 4)
3) 2 NADH produced (worth 3 ATP each)
87
intermediate steps
1) 2 pyruvate becomes 2 Acetyl coA
2) 0 ATP produced
3) 2 NADH produced
88
krebs cycle steps
1) 2 Acetyl coA complete the cycle
2) 2 ATP produced
3) 6 NADH produced
2 FADH produced (each worth 2 ATP)
89
what is the running total of ATP after all the steps to cellular respiration
36
90
mesophile
moderate temperature loving microbes
optimal growth temp is 37 C (98.6 F)
almost all human pathogens are mesophiles
91
Psychrotroph
organisms that like room temp or refrigerator temp
food spoilage organisms or foodborne illnesses
92
obligate aerobic bacteria
gather at the top of the test tube in order to absorb maximal amount of oxygen because they require oxygen
93
Obligate anaerobic bacteria
gather at the bottom to avoid oxygen, can not survive in the presence of oxygen
94
facultative anaerobes
grow best with oxygen (at top), but can grow without oxygen (bottom)
95
aerotolerant anaerobes
does not need oxygen but is tolerant of oxygen
is spread all around
96
microaerofiles
loves a little bit of oxygen
can not grow at the top, cant grow at the top, but closer to the middle
97
biofilm
protective coating around an entire community
how organisms attach to surfaces
when an organism has biofilm it's 1000x harder to kill
immune system has a hard time getting to them
HAS to get 100% of the organism
organisms get healthier while under a biofilm
98
What is agar? Why is it important in the lab?
agar is a thickening agent
important in a lab because it allows for a growth surface
is NOT food
99
What is a bacterial colony?
all organisms produced from a single ancestor
visible colonies will have millions of cells
100
What is binary fission analogous to in humans?
mitosis
101
steps to bacterial growth curve
1) lag phase: preparing to divide, no increase in cells
2) log phase: exponential or logarithmic increase in cells. easiest time to kill them
3) stationary phase: birth = death, as many cells are dying as those being born
4) death phase: logarithmic decrease.
102
turbidity
how cloudy or clear something is
a way to know microbial growth
103
What temperature range is the “danger zone” for food spoilage?
40-140 F
when microbes are growing and producing toxins
104
What are the key tips to keep leftover food safe?
properly freezing and thawing (in refrigerator)
cooking food at appropriate temp
store food in small containers
105
What does a hypertonic environment do to a bacteria? How do we take advantage of this?
hypertonic environment: when there's more solutes outside of a cell then there is inside
sucks water out of bacteria(plasmolysis)
we take advantage of this by using canned goods, salt or sugar sucks water out of bacteria, not killing them but shutting off their metabolism so they cant divide
106
What are the 4 Biosafety levels?
BSL-1: almost everything we work w/ in lab. minimal risk. nonpathogenic strains
BSL-2: should use gloves, moderate risk
BSL-3: organisms that can kill you, but there's vaccines and things to cure or prevent them
BSL-4: organisms with no treatments, no vaccines
107
generation time
how long it takes a bacteria to divide into two
fast organisms are 20 minutes, sometimes lower
the shorter the time, the more organisms that are there
108
Compare disinfection and antisepsis
disinfection: used on surfaces
antisepsis: on living tissue
109
Is commercial sterilization an actual form of sterilization? What is it designed to destroy?
commercial sterilization is not a form of sterilization
it is designed to destroy c diff in canned goods
110
Does a bacteriostatic agent kill microbes?
no, it inhibits their growth
111
Remember that there are many factors that influence the effectiveness of disinfection. The key factor is the presence or absence of _____________________
organic matter (fecal material, spit, blood)
112
How does moist heat kill microbes? What is the time, pressure, and temperature in our autoclave? What is the key thing to remember when using an autoclave?
moist heat denatures proteins
in our autoclave, for 15 mins 15 psi at 121 C
when using an autoclave, its important to remember it only works when it comes into direct contact with the organism
113
How does dry heat sterilization (like flaming a loop) kill microbes?
oxidizes, peels electrons off
114
What does HEPA stand for?
high efficiency particulate air filter
115
What are good examples of items that you would use filtration to sterilize?
use filtration anytime you can't heat something up (vaccines)
116
What are the 2 key differences between phenol and phenolics? Hint: The 3rd thing is that phenolics don’t smell as bad. What is the best example of a phenolic? In what environment does a phenolic work where most disinfectants will not?
phenolics are used now because they're more effective, less toxic, and less irritating
example of a phenolic is o phenylphenol (lysol)
phenolics work in the presence of organic matter
117
What is in most antibacterial soaps?
Triclosan
118
Where would you find the very effective antiseptic chlorhexidine?
surgical hand scrubs, mouthwashes, shampoos
119
What does the chlorine in bleach become before it is an effective oxidizing agent?
hypochlorous acid
120
Is it generally easier to kill a virus with or without a lipid envelope? Gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria?
without the lipid envelope would be easier to kill
gram negative bacteria are stronger than gram positive bacteria
121
Which antimicrobial did we talk about that is more effective at killing Mycobacterium than most?
phenolics
122
Define a gene
sequence of DNA that codes for a functional product (most of the time a protein)
123
difference between genotype and phenotype
genotype is your genetic makeup
phenotype are genes that are being used (observable traits)
124
DNA complimentary base pairs
A - T
G - C
125
what direction is dna read in
5' to 3'
126
steps of DNA replication.
unwind DNA so DNA polymerase can read it, builds continuously or not continuously
127
How is the lagging strand different than the leading strand
leading strand is synthesized continuously
lagging strand runs the wrong direction and has to be looped around, has more steps than leading strand
128
DNA polymerase
DNA replication, reads and builds DNA
129
RNA polymerase
Transcription, reads DNA and builds RNA
130
Define transcription
conversion of DNA to mRNA
131
translation
mRNA to protein
132
What is removed from eukaryotic RNA before it leaves the nucleus
introns
133
3 letter sequences for the 1 start codon
AUG
134
3 stop/nonsense codons
UAA, UAG, UGA
135
What is degeneracy?
When two codes code for the same amino acid, can tolerate mutation without any problems
136
what is the most common type of genetic mutation?
base - substitution or point mutation
137
What is usually the most damaging type of genetic mutation?
frame shift mutation
138
what is the main way DNA is recombined in transformation
DNA is transferred and recombined as naked DNA in solutions
139
what is the main way DNA is recombined in conjugation
DNA is transferred and recombined through a pilus on a plasmid
140
what is the main way DNA is recombined in transduction
DNA is transferred and recombined using a phage or bacteriophage
141
Define a plasmid
non-chromosomal or extra chromosomal genetic material
can self-replicate
142
phage
virus that infects bacteria
143
What is the key feature of genetic vectors like plasmids and phages?
they are self-replicating
144
Do we make restriction enzymes or find them?
we find them
145
Why is the PCR so important to the study of genetics? What are the basics of the PCR process?
PCR is polymerase chain reaction
this allows us to amplify DNA
uses rapid temp change & chemicals to rip it apart and build new
146
Are gene guns used with plant or animal cells (usually)? How about microinjection?
gene guns are used with plant or animal cells
microinjections are used with animal cells
147
What is cDNA?
complementary DNA
148
What are the 2 key examples of biotechnology that we talked about in class?
human insulin
human growth hormone
149
What is the difference between infection and disease?
infection is when you've been colonized by a pathogen
disease is a disruption of homeostasis
150
Are transient microbiota important?
they are important
can lead to immune or neurological responses
151
Does Dr. O believe that our relationship with our microbiota is primarily an example of commensalism or mutualism? Why?
it is an example of mutualism because both sides win
152
What are the 2 factors that increase the risk of infections by opportunistic pathogens?
compromised host
wrong location
153
Define probiotics
living organisms to enhance health
154
prebiotics
fiber to feed organisms already in your body
155
What are Koch’s postulates? What are they used for? Why can’t they be used to find the causative agents for all infectious diseases?
they are a way to find the causative agents of a disease
they can't be used all the time because you might not be able to isolate the organism, you can't use it if an organism causes multiple diseases, and if one disease is caused by multiple organisms
156
Define signs
things that can be measured
157
symptoms
subjective things you have to say something about
158
communicable
can be spread from one to another
159
contagious
EASILY spread from one to another
160
noncommunicable
not spread from one to another
161
incidence
number of people that get a disease during a given time period
162
prevalence
how many people have the disease (old cases + new cases)
163
When do we reach herd immunity?
70% - depends on how contagious disease
164
What is a secondary infection? What is the best example?
they are the second infection you get after already getting sick
an example of the flu leading to pneumonia
165
the key predisposing factors that increase infectious disease risk
anatomical
malnutrition
seasonality (flu season, cold weather)
fatigue
166
the 5 stages of disease. During what stages can you spread a disease?
incubation period, prodromal period, period of illness, period of decline, convalescence
can spread disease during all 5 stages
167
the basic differences between contact, vehicle, and vector spread of disease
contact spread is when you come into direct contact
vehicle spread are substances like food or water
vector spread is living things carrying diseases
168
What is a fomite?
inanimate object that spreads disease
169
Know the 3 types of contact transmission
direct: contact with someone with a disease
indirect: fomites carrying diseases
droplets: someone sneezing and getting their droplets on you
170
What percent of hospital patients acquire nosocomial infections? Why?
5-15%
compromised hosts, strong microbes, and chain of transmission
171
What is virulence? What are some factors that can increase virulence?
virulence is how dangerous an organism can be
things that increase virulence are gram negative envelopes around bacteria and capsules
172
What is the most common nosocomial infection? What nosocomial infection has the highest mortality rate?
the most common are infections from catheters (UTIs)
most deadly are pneumonia
173
What is the most common portal of entry?
mucus membranes of respiratory tract
174
What is the parenteral route?
anytime you bypass one of your body's defenses (bite, surgical wound, needles)
175
What are the 3 adherence factors that you are supposed to remember?
fimbriae
capsule (neatly organised)
bio-films
176
How do capsules increase virulence?
they evade phagocytosis
177
What is antigenic variation? What organism is the best example that we talked about?
some organisms can change what they look like on the outside
an example would be the flu
178
What mineral does a siderophore attach to?
iron
179
What is a toxoid? An antitoxin?
toxoid - vaccine against toxins (tetanus shot)
antitoxin - antibody therapy to neutralize toxins
180
What are the key portals of exit?
exits are the same as entry
respiratory and gastrointestinal
181
Know the ley differences between endotoxins and exotoxins. (gram-positive versus gram-negative, fever or no fever, high or low lethal dose, etc)
endotoxins - produced by gram negatives, FEVER, LD50 is higher, more common
exotoxins - produced by gram positives, LD50 is lower, more toxic
182
helicase
unwinds DNA
183
DNA ligase
only needed on lagging strand
seals gaps after fragments of DNA are built
184
Penicillin G
natural penicillin, injected
NARROW SPECTRUM
185
Penicillin V
natural penicillin. Taken orally
186
Methicillin
Semisynthetic penicillin.
led to MRSA
discontinued
187
Oxacillin
Semisynthetic penicillin
Replaced methicillin
188
Ampicillin
Broad-spectrum semisynthetic penicillin.
189
Amoxicillin
Broad-spectrum semisynthetic penicillin
190
Augmentin
top of the line penicillin
191
Primaxin
carbapenem
intramuscular injection
resistance
192
Cephalosporins
Similar to penicillin
Grouped by generations
193
Bacitracin
neosporin
kills gram + bacteria
194
Vancomycin
narrow spectrum but kills MRSA
195
Isoniazid
Inhibits mycolic acid synthesis
for tuberculosis
Treatment time is 6 months
196
Ethambutol
less effective
used to avoid resistance issues
197
Chloramphenicol
BROAD spectrum
toxicity concerns
198
Streptomycin
BROAD-spectrum
kills mycobacterium
resistance
199
Neomycin
BROAD spectrum
neosporin
200
Gentamicin
BROAD spectrum
kils pseudomonas
used with CF patients
201
Tetracycline
BROAD spectrum
kills chlamydia and rickettsia
can lead to superinfection
202
Erythromycin
NARROW-spectrum (gram +)
203
Polymyxin B
neosporin
gram - (pseudomonas)
injury to plasma membrane (rare)
204
Rifampin
Very important in the treatment of Tuberculosis
injures plasma membrane
205
Nalidixic acid
UTIs
206
Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
BROAD spectrum (gram +)
inhibits nucleic acid
207
Trimethoprim + sulfamethoxazole
Broad-spectrum
bacteriostatic
inhibit the conversion of PABA into folic acid
slows resistance down
208
sulfa drugs can also be used on ...
burns
209
What is the most common source of antibiotics found in nature?
streptomycin in soil
210
What does broad spectrum mean versus narrow spectrum? Why should narrow spectrum antibiotics be used whenever possible?
broad spectrum: you can kill/inhibit multiple types of microbes
narrow spectrum: you can kill one or the other (gram + OR gram - bacteria)
narrow spectrum should be used because theres less damage
211
What is a superinfection?
secondary infection you get after using antibiotics
ex: yeast infections or C.diff
212
Why is it harder to develop antimicrobial drugs against
eukaryotes like protozoa?
because we are eukaryotes and we are similar, narrow spectrum drugs usually
213
Which type of penicillin must be injected? Why?
penicillin G because it's not stable in stomach acid
214
Why is Methicillin no longer in use in America?
evolution, used too much to the point where it doesn't work anymore
215
What is the difference between Amoxicillin and Augmentin?
both semi-synthetic penicillin
amoxicillin: with a penicillinase inhibitor called potassium clavulanate
augmentin: stronger, inhibitor, top of the line penicillin
216
Know the 3 antibiotics in topical triple antibiotic preparations.
polymyxin B (inhibits gram - bacteria)
bacitracin (kills gram +)
neomycin (broad spectrum)
217
What is the primary role in the drug Ethambutol in the treatment of TB?
usually paired with isoniazid (stronger)
we use ethambutol because combining the two slows evolution/resistance
218
What process do sulfa drugs block in bacteria? Why doesn’t it cause a problem in humans?
sulfa drugs inhibit production of folic acid
doesn't effect us because we have to eat folic acid
219
Do antiviral drugs kill viruses?
no, it slows viral replication
220
What are some of the things that we do that speed up antimicrobial resistance?
misuse
overuse
abuse
221
Why are drug combinations often better than using one class of antibiotic?
slow resistance
make them work better
222
What is the difference between variolation and vaccination?
Variolation: intentional infection with small amounts of small pox
vaccination: induces immunity without infecting you
223
What was the 1st disease eradicated? Why? Who is next?
smallpox in 1979
a worldwide effort caused the eradication
polio is next
224
Why are conjugated vaccines used? Who do they help?
they add proteins bc it increases immune response in children
225
What kind of vaccine is most effective? What needs boosters? Who benefits from conjugated vaccines?
attenuated vaccine
toxoids need boosters
children benefit from conjugated vaccines
226
Why are viral vaccines more important than bacterial
vaccines?
because it's easier to kill off bacteria than viruses
227
Where are many viral vaccines (including influenza virus) grown?
in chick embryos
they need cells to have a metabolism
228
What does the future of vaccines look like? Will we use vaccines for things that aren’t even infectious?
not needing needles, not having to be refrigerated
we will use vaccines for things that aren't infectious (alzheimer's vaccine)
229
Know the difference between sensitivity and specificity
sensitivity: no false negatives
specificity: no false positives
230
Why are monoclonal antibodies beneficial? What are some examples that we talked about in class?
they're beneficial because you only need 1 antibody to clone
examples: humera (drugs that block conditions for autoimmune conditions), and pregnancy tests
231
What is a hybridoma?
part cancerous b cell and part antibody producing b cell
232
What have myeloma cells forgotten how to do?
die
233
What are the 4 types of hypersensitivity reactions?
type 1: igE immune reactions to allergens
type 2: igG or igM cytotoxic hypersensitivity
type 3: immune complex
type 4: delayed cell mediated hypersensitivity reaction
234
Type I hypersensitivity reactions involve which immunoglobulin?
igE
235
What do mast cells and basophils release?
they release histamine
236
What is the difference between systemic and localized anaphylaxis?
systemic anaphylaxis: life-threatening, vasodilation
localized anaphylaxis: eyes getting itchy, swollen, not dangerous
237
How do desensitizing injections work? What immunoglobulin is in them?
expose tiny amounts of antigen that leads to an igG response that stop the igE response if coming into contact with allergen
238
The primary chemical mediator of Type I reactions is________?
igE antibodies
mast and basophils releasing histamine
239
What is the medication given to some women to avoid
hemolytic disease of the newborn? How do they
determine who needs the injections?
RhoGAM
any mom with a negative blood type is given this injection
240
What is the primary cause of autoimmune diseases? A
lack of ______________
tolerance
241
Know the key features about AIDS that we highlighted, including why it is called a retrovirus, the stats about HIV infections and deaths, vaccine difficulties, etc
retrovirus: RNA virus that uses enzyme reverse transcriptase to become DNA
the stats: globally 1 million infections a year, in us 40k infections a year
vaccine: body has hard time with retrovirus
242
When was AIDS discovered? Has it been around longer than that?
1981 was discovered
1983 when they discovered it was AIDS
but it came in 1908 from animal meat
243
Know the receptor that the HIV virus is looking for, as well as the most common coreceptor
receptor is cd4
coreceptor is ccr5
244
What is reverse transcriptase?
enzyme that reverses transcription
245
What are the phases of HIV infection?
phase 1: no symptoms
phase 2: sick more often
phase 3: when HIV becomes AIDS
246
When does HIV infection become AIDS?
stage 3 when cd4 t cell count is at 200
247
Why are some people “immune” to AIDS?
1-3% of ppl are ccr5 mutants, which is the HIV virus' coreceptor
248
What are the drugs that slow the progression of HIV trying
to accomplish? Why do we use a cocktail of multiple drugs?
they are trying to slow down the virus
this cocktail of drugs is more effective
249
Define eutrophication? What is the rate-limiting nutrient associated with eutrophication?
eutrophication: overgrowth of microorganisms because you fed them nutrients
phosphorus is the rate-limiting nutrient
250
The use of microbes to detoxify or degrade pollutants is
called ___________?
bioremediation
microbes for oil spills
251
When determining if water is safe the most important things to look for would be caused by contamination with ____________
fecal material
252
Understand the basics of the water treatment process? What are the major steps?
A
series of filtrations
water supply gets screened --> water in mixing tank --> flocculation basin --> actual filter --> disinfection (with chlorine) --> store then drink
253
What kind of treatment is needed before sewage water is drinkable?
tertiary treatment
254
Is commercial sterilization a sterilizing tool?
no
255
What are the major steps in commercial sterilization?
sterilize container, soften foods before food in can, use heat to kill microbes, then seal can
256
What microbe is commercial sterilization aimed at killing?
all clostridium botulinum
uses 12D treatment
257
What does 12D treatment mean?
12 decimal
treatment effective enough that it can kill 12 decimals full of microbes
258
What is a term that can be used on labels when talking about irradiated food?
electronic pasteurization
259
What would be an advantage of using high pressure to
“disinfect” food?
preserves color and flavour in a way that heat can't
260
What is rennin? How does it pertain to cheese production
rennin - enzyme that curds milk, needed to make cheese
261
attenuated whole-agent
weaked, still alive
not pathogenic
most effective
immunocompromised can't take it
262
inactivated whole-agent
killed organism, less effective
series of doses
safer
263
toxoid
vaccines against toxins
needs a BOOSTER (every 10 years)
264
subunit
exposed to part of an organism
covid vaccines
265
conjugated vaccines
children take these because they have protein added to them
266
how are monoclonal antibodies produced
take antibody and expose it to mouse --> get antigen from mouse, get spleen cells from mouse and mix them with myeloma cells --> hybrid oma (part cancer part antibody producing) --> immortal antibodies
267
Know the basic of blood typing immunology, including the
4 ABO blood types and the antigens and antibodies of each blood type
ABO blood type is determined by the antigens you have on the surface of your RBC
A: a antigens & anti-b antibodies
B: b antigens & anti-a antibodies
AB: both & neither antibody --> UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT (AB+)
O: neither & both antibodies --> UNIVERSAL DONOR
268
the Rh blood typing system, and hemolytic disease of the newborn
Rh system: + blood means you have the Rh antigen, - blood means you don't
hemolytic disease is babies with Rh - blood with anti-Rh antibodies after exposure (2nd pregnancy)
269
bacillus
Rod shaped bacteria
270
coccus
A round, spherical bacterium
271
when dealing with enzymes...
enzymes - biological catalysts, can work nonstop, speed up chem. reactions, made of proteins
most enzyme names end in "ase"
enzymes work by lower activation energy
enzymes can speed up reactions by 1-2 BILLION times
