Final Flashcards
(274 cards)
1
Q
What are the parts of the digestive tract?
A
- Oral cavity
- Pharynx
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small intestine
- large intestine
2
Q
What are the accessory digestive system organs?
A
- Teeth
- Tongue
- Salivary glands
- Liver
- Gallbladder
- Pancreas
3
Q
What is the inside to outside organization of histology of the digestive tract?
A
- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscularis externa
- Serosa
4
Q
What are the parts of the mucosa?
A
- Mucosal epithelium
- Lamina propria
- Muscularis mucosa
5
Q
What are the plica?
A
Folds in the mucosa that function to increase surface area for absorption
6
Q
What is the submucosa?
A
Areolar tissue surrounding the muscularis mucosa
7
Q
What are the contents of the submucosa?
A
- Blood vessels
- Lymphatics
- Exocrine glands
- submucosal plexus
8
Q
What are the two orientations of the muscularis externa?
A
- Circumferentially oriented (inner layer)
- Longitudinally oriented (outer layer)
9
Q
What type of fibers comprise the muscularis externa?
A
visceral smooth muscle fibers
10
Q
How are the muscle cells of the digestive system arranged?
A
In sheets or layers
11
Q
How are the muscle cells of the digestive system connected?
A
electrically connected by gap junctions
12
Q
How do contractions spread in the digestive system?
A
in a wave in response to motor neuron activation, chemicals, hormones, stretching and pacesetter cells
13
Q
What do pacesetter cells do?
A
trigger muscle contraction patters that facilitate the propulsion and mixing of contents along the digestive tract
14
Q
What is peristalsis contraction pattern?
A
Wavelike contractions of muscularis externa propel bolus along digestive tract
15
Q
What type of muscles need to be coordinated for peristalsis?
A
Coordinated actions of circular and longitudinal muscle
16
Q
What makes up the CNS?
A
Brain
Spinal cord
17
Q
What makes up the PNS?
A
Peripheral nerves
18
Q
What secondary communication system does the nervous system control?
A
The endocrine system (hormones)
19
Q
What nerves control integration of sensory information?
A
Afferent nerves
20
Q
What nerves coordinate voluntary and involuntary motor information?
A
efferent nerves
21
Q
What info does nervous system provide?
A
Info about internal and external environments
22
Q
What is the sequence of events in the nervous system?
A
Sensory->integration->motor
23
Q
What does the somatic part of PNS control?
A
Muscle
24
Q
What does the Autonomic part of PNS control?
A
Organs
25
What are the two part of the PNS?
- Parasympathetic
| - Sympathetic
26
What is the CNS responsible for?
Integrating, processing, and coordinating sensory data and sending motor commands
27
What part of the efferent nervous system do reflexes come from?
Somatic nervous system
28
What is the "visceral motor system"?
The autonomic efferent system
29
What precise things does the autonomic nervous system control?
- Smooth muscle
- Cardiac muscle
- Glandular activity
30
What precise things does the somatic nervous system control?
Skeletal muscle contractions
31
What are the parts of a neuron?
- Cell body (soma)
- Dendrites and soma (receptor sites)
- Axon Hillock (summing area)
- Axons (transmission)
- Axon collaterals
- Axon terminal (terminal boutons=synaptic knobs)
32
What are the 3 neuronal targets?
- Other neurons
- Neruomuscular junctions
- Neuroglandular junctions
33
What are the parts of a synapse?
- Presynaptic membrane
- Synaptic cleft
- Post synaptic membrane
- Synaptic vesicles
- Neurotransmitters
34
What are the excitatory neurotransmitters?
- Acetylcholine
- Epinephrine
- Dopamine
35
What are the inhibitory neurotransmitters?
- Glycine
| - GABA
36
What are the 4 types of neurons?
- Anaxonic
- Bipolar
- Unipolar
- Multipolar
37
What are neuroglia?
Supporting cells of the nervous system
38
What do neuroglia do?
Have many functions including:
- Creating supporting framework for neurons
- Insulating the neurons
- Act as phagocytes
- Regulate enzyme/transmitter levels
- Form blood-brain barrier
39
What size are neuroglia?
Smaller than neurons
40
What do Schwann cells do?
Surround all axons in PNS, responsible for myelination
41
What do satellite cells do?
Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia, also regulate nt, and a few other things around ganglia
42
What are the 4 types of CNS Neuroglia?
- Oligodendrocytes
- Astrocytes
- Microglia
- Ependymal
43
What is the tough protective layer of the brain called?
Dura mater
44
What are the folds of the dura mater?
- Falx cerebri
- Falx cerebelli
- Tentorium cerebelli
45
What is the weblike covering of the brain?
Arachnoid mater
46
What is the softer protective layer of the brain?
Pia mater
47
Where is the falx cerebri of the dura mater placed?
Between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum
48
What do the superior and inferior sagittal sinuses of the falx cerebri of the dura mater do?
Carry venous drainage away from the brain
49
Where is the falx cerebelli of the dura mater placed?
Between the hemispheres of the cerebellum
50
Where is the tentorium cerebelli of the dura mater placed?
Seperates cerebrum from cerebellum
51
What is the sinus of the tentorium cerebelli?
The transverse sinus
52
What is meningitis?
Inflammation of the meninges
53
What are the meninges?
The dura mater, the pia mater, and the arachnoid mater
54
Find the falx cerebri, the falx cerebelli, and the tentorium cerebelli on a picture.
Ok
55
What ventricles are in the telencephalon?
The 2 lateral ventricles
56
Where is the 3rd ventricle?
Diencephalon
57
Where is the 4th ventricle?
Between cerebellum and brain stem
58
What do all 4 ventricles contain?
Choroid plexus epithelial cells
59
What do all 4 ventricles produce?
cerebrospinal fluid
60
What is the path of cerebral spinal fluid flow?
Lateral ventricles-> Interventricular foramen-> 3rd ventricle-> Cerebral aqueduct-> 4th ventricle
61
What are the 5 lobes of the cerebrum?
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Occipital
- Temporal
- Insular
62
Which lobe is the motor cortex?
Frontal
63
Which lobe is the somatosensory cortex?
Parietal
64
Which lobe is the visual cortex?
Occipital
65
Which lobe is the auditory cortex?
Temporal
66
Which lobe is the emotional/olfactory cortex?
Insular
67
On a picture of the brain find the :
- Central sulcus
- Pre-central gyrus
- Post-central gyrus
- lateral sulcus
- Parieto-occipital fissure
Ok
68
What is the left hemisphere of the brain mainly responsible for?
- Spoken and written language
- Numerical and scientific skills
- Ability to use and understand sign language
- Reasoning
69
What is the right hemisphere of the brain mainly responsible for?
- Musical and artistic awareness
- Space and pattern perception
- Recognition of faces and emotional content of facial expressions
- Generating emotional content of language
- Generating mental images to compare spatial relationships
70
What do the brodmann areas use to separate parts of the brian?
Separates regions of cortex based on cytoarchitecture and organization of cells
71
What makes up white matter?
- Commissural fibers
- Association fibers
- Arcuate fibers
- Projection fibers
- Internal capsule
72
What parts make up the corpus striatum?
- Caudate nucleus
- Lentiform nucleus
* Putamen
* Globus Pallidus
73
What are the two overall parts of basal nuclei?
- Corpus striatum
| - Amygdaloid body
74
Lack of what neurotransmitter in the basal nuclei causes parkinsons disease?
Dopamine
75
What causes loss of dopamine in parkinsons?
Loss of dopamine producing cells in mid brain (substantia nigra cells)
76
Look at and read each part of the overview of brain
Got it
77
What are the embryological divisions of the brain?
- Telencephalon
- Diencephalon
- Mesencephalon
- Metencephalon
- Mylencephalon
78
What does the telencephalon consist of?
Cerebrum
79
What does the diencephalon consist of?
- Epithalamus
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
80
What does the mesencephalon consist of?
Midbrain
81
What does the metencephalon consist of?
- Pons
| - Cerebellum
82
What does the myencephalon consist of?
Medulla oblongata
83
What makes up the epithalamus?
- Roof of 3rd ventricle
| - Pineal gland
84
What does the pineal gland do?
- Secretes melatonin hormone
- Regulates day-night cycles
- Possible reproductive functions
85
What do the thalamus nuclei areas do?
Send info to cortex/basal nuclei
86
What is the thalamus considered a gateway for and why?
- Gateway for cerebral cortex
| - All information synapse here before going to the cortex
87
What type of information does the thalamus relay?
Sensory and motor information
88
What is the hypothalamus a link between?
Nervous and endocrine systems
89
What type of control center is the hypothalamus?
Main visceral control center
90
What does the hypothalamus control?
Overall autonomic NS:
- Emotional response
- Sex drive
- Body temperature
- Hunger and thirst centers
- Sleep-wake cycles
- Control of endocrine system via pituitary gland
91
Identify where the brain stem is
Gots it
92
What is the reticular activating system responsible for?
Consciousness and alertness
93
What is the Reticular activating system?
Loosely clustered set of neurons
94
What happens with reticular activating system stimulation?
Arousal and heightened state of attentiveness
95
What motor controls does the reticular activating system have?
- Skeletal muscle movements to limbs
- Heart rate
- Blood pressure
- respiratory rate
96
What parts make up the nuclei of the mesencephalon?
- Corpora quadrigemina
| - Cranial nerve nuclei for cranial nerves
97
Where is the nucleus for the oculomotor (III) cranial nerve?
mesencephalon
98
Where is the nucleus for the trochlear (IV) Cranial nerve?
Mesencephalon
99
What are the parts of the mesencephalon?
- Nuclei
- Cerebral peduncles
- Superior cerebellar peduncles
100
What are the major parts of cerebral peduncles?
Corticospinal tract
101
What are the parts of the Corpora quadrigemina?
- Superior colliculi
| - Inferior colliculi
102
What does the superior colliculi of the corpora quadrigemina control?
Visual reflexes
103
What does the inferior colliculi of the corpora quadrigemina control?
Auditory reflexes
104
What are the two reticular formation deep nuclei of the mesencephalon?
- Substantia nigra
| - Red nucleus
105
What does the substantia nigra do?
Involuntary motor output to basal nuclei
106
What does the red nucleus do?
Involuntary muscle tone and limb position
107
What are the parts of the metencephalon (pons)?
- Middle cerebellar peduncles
- Involuntary respiratory centers
- Cranial nerve nuclei for cranial nerves
- Pontine nuclei
108
Where is the nucleus for the trigeminal (V) cranial nerve?
Metencephalon (Pons)
109
Where is the nucleus for the abducens (VI) cranial nerve?
Metencephalon (pons)
110
Where is the nucleus for the facial (VII) cranial nerve?
Metencephalon (pons)
111
Where is the nucleus for the vestibulocochlear (VIII) cranial nerve?
Metencephalon (Pons) and myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)
112
What are the parts of the metencephalon (pons) involuntary respiratory centers?
-Pneumotaxic and apneustic
113
What does the involuntary respiratory center of the metencephalon (pons) do?
Regulate respiratory rhythm center in medulla
114
What do the pontine nuclei of the metencephalon (pons) do?
Relay from cerebral motor cortex to cerebellum
115
What are the parts of the myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)?
- Pyramids
- Olivary nucles
- Cranial nerve nuclei for cranial nerves
116
Where is the nucleus for the glossopharyngeal (IX) cranial nerve?
Myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)
117
Where is the nucleus for the vagus (X) cranial nerve?
Myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)
118
Where is the nucleus for the Accessory (XI) cranial nerve?
Myelencephalon (Medulla oblongata)
119
Where is the nucleus for the hypoglossal (XII) cranial nerve?
Myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)
120
What are the parts of the pyramids in the myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)?
- Corticospinal tracts
| - Decussation (crossing over)
121
What do the olivary nucles of the myelencephalon (medulla oblongata) do?
Relay info to cerebellum
122
What does the Nucleus gracillis of the medulla oblongata do?
Relays sensory info from lower extremity to thalamus
123
What does the Nucleus cuneatus of the medulla oblongata do?
Relays sensory info from upper extremity to thalamus
124
Where is the nucleus gracilis placed in the medulla oblongata?
Medial
125
Where is the nucleus cuneatus placed in the medulla oblongata?
Lateral
126
What does the cardiovascular center of the medulla oblongata control?
- HR
| - BP
127
What does the respiratory rhythmic center of the medulla oblongata control?
- Pace respiratory movements
| - Hiccuping, vomiting, swallowing, coughing, sneezing
128
What is cranial nerve I and what does it do?
Olfactory: Smell (ss)
129
What is cranial nerve II and what does it do?
Optic: Vision (SS)
130
What is cranial nerve III and what does it do?
Occulomotor: Eye movement (M)
131
What is cranial nerve IV and what does it do?
Trochlear: Eye movement (M)
132
What is cranial nerve V and what does it do?
Trigeminal: Facial sensation;Chewing muscles (s,m)
133
What is cranial nerve VI and what does it do?
Abducens: Eye movement (M)
134
What is cranial nerve VII and what does it do?
Facial: Taste, facial expression, salivary glands (SS,M)
135
What is cranial nerve VIII and what does it do?
Vestibulocochlear: Hearing and balance (SS)
136
What is cranial nerve IX and what does it do?
Glossopharyngeal: Tongue and pharynx (S,M)
137
What is cranial nerve X and what does it do?
Vagus: Thorax and abdomen (S,M)
138
What is cranial nerve XI and what does it do?
Spinal Accessory: Palate/pharynx/larynx, SCM and trapezius (M)
139
What is cranial nerve XII and what does it do?
Hypoglossal: Tongue movement (M)
140
What does the cerebellum do?
Error corrector
- Responsible for movement coordination, posture, and equilibrium
- Ipsilateral and contralateral control
141
What connects the two hemispheres of the cerebellum?
Vermis
142
What are the parts of the cerebellum?
3 Lobes
- Anterior
- Posterior
- Flocculonodular
- Folia (folds
- Fissure
- Cortex (Purkinje cells)
- White matter
- Cerebellar nuclei (with dentate nucleus
143
What are the 3 main functions of the limbic system?
1. Emotional brain
2. Memory storage and retrieval
3. Links conscious and unconscious mind
144
What parts make up the emotional brain of the limbic system?
- Cingulate gyrus (limbic lobe)
- Amygdaloid body
- Connected to many regions of the brain
145
What parts make up the memory storage and retrieval part of the limbic system?
- Hippocampus
- Fornix (White matter connecting hippocampus to hypothalamus and mammillary bodies
- Thalamus, anterior nucleus
146
What does the fornix control?
-Reflex movements for eating, chewing, licking, and swallowing
147
What are the 5 main regions of the spinal cord?
- Cervical
- Thoracic
- Lumbar
- Sacral
- Coccygeal
148
At what age does the spinal cord stop growing but vertebrae keep on growing?
4
149
Where does the spinal cord end?
Around L1 or L 2
150
What are the meninges that protect delicate neural tissue of the spinal cord?
- Dura mater
- Arachnoid mater
- Pia mater
151
Point out the gray matter and columns on left side of cross-sectional anatomy of special cord segments, also look at organization of nuclei in gray matter and columns in white/gray matter on the right side.
Got it
152
What makes up the posterior column pathway of the spinal cord?
- Fasciculus gracilis
| - Fasciculus cuneatus
153
What makes up the spinocerebellar pathway of the spinal cord?
- Posterior spinocerebellar tract
| - Anterior spinocerebellar tract
154
What makes up the spinothalamic pathway?
- Lateral spinothalamic tract
| - Anteriorspinothalamic tract
155
What does the corticospinal pathway do?
Uses voluntary contralateral muscle control
156
What are the tracts of the corticospinal pathway?
- Corticobulbar tract (Cranial nerve branches)
- Lateral tract (decussates in medulla)
- Anterior tract (Decussates at spinal level)
157
Where is the vestibulospinal tract?
From vestibular nucleus in pons and medulla oblongata, to spinal cord
158
What input does the vestibulospinal tract take?
Input form inner ear concerning position of head, body posture, and body balance
159
What output does the vestibulospinal tract give?
Output to postural and balance muscles
160
What type of control does the vestibulospinal tract have?
Ipsilateral control
161
Where is the tectospinal tract?
From tectum nuclei in midbrain (superior/inferior colliculi)
162
What input does the tectospinal tract take?
Visual and auditory input
163
What output does the tectospinal tract give?
Output to muscles of the head and neck to respond to bright lights, sudden movements, and loud noises
164
What type of control does the tectospinal tract have?
Contralateral control
165
Where is the rubrospinal tract?
From red nucleus in midbrain to cervical spinal cord
166
What does the rubrospinal tract control?
Limited motor control of upper extremity muscles
167
What type of control does the rubrospinal tract have?
Contralateral control
168
Where is the reticulospinal tract?
From reticular formation in brain stem to spinal cord
169
What input does the reticulospinal tract take?
Input from all ascending and descending pathways, cerebrum, brain stem, and cerebellum
170
What output does the reticulospinal tract give?
Output to muscles during an increase in alertness of the body
171
What type of control does the reticulospinal tract have?
Ipsilateral control
172
Where does complex somatic motor control come from?
Cerebral cortex
173
Where do simple somatic reflexes come from?
Brain stem and spinal cord
174
What evaluates and modifies movement after the motor cortex has initiated it?
Basal nuclei and cerebellum
175
What general receptors sense the external environment?
exteroceptors
176
What do interoceptors sense?
General sense for internal environment
177
What do proprioceptors sense?
Body position and movement
178
What General receptors sense pressure, touch, vibration, and position?
Mechanoreceptors
179
What general receptors sense temperature?
Thermoreceptors
180
What general receptors sense the chemical composition of body fluids?
Chemoreceptors
181
What general receptors are visual receptors?
Photoreceptors
182
What general receptors sense pain?
Nociceptors
183
What is referred pain?
Visceral pain perceived to be located in more superficial/other areas
184
How do the nerve endings of nociceptors work?
Free nerve endings with large receptive fields
185
What problem do the free nerve endings of nociceptors cause?
Can be difficult to determine pain origin
186
What are the parts of unencapsulated mechanoreceptors: tactile receptors?
- Free nerve endings (fine touch and pressure)
- Merkel (tactile) discs (Fine touch and pressure)
- Root haie nerve endings
187
What are the parts of encapsulated mechanoreceptors: tactile receptors?
- Meissner's (tactile) corpuscles (light touch and movement)
- Ruffini corpuscles (pressure and skin tension)
- Pacinian (lamellated) corpuscles (deep pressure/vibration)
188
What do baroreceptors (type of mechanoreceptors) Monitor?
Monitor changes in Pressure in :
- elastic tissue walls of hollow organs
- Blood vessels
- Respiratory tract
- Digestive tract
- Urinary tract
And also
- BP
- Lung expansion
- Visceral reflexes (Urination)
189
What causes baroreceptors to activate?
Stretch
190
What is the golgi tendon organ?
Proprioceptor receptor (sense body position)
191
What does the golgi tendon organ sense?
Tension in tendon of muscles
192
What does the golgi tendon organ send?
Inhibitory signal back to parent muscle to try and decrease muscle tension
193
What does a muscle spindle do?
Senses muscle length, tension, and velocity of contraction
194
What is the muscle spindle made up of?
Nuclear bad with sensory neuron called the ia afferent
195
What do the intrafusal fibers in the muscle spindle do?
Control tension in bag via a gamma efferent motor neuron
196
What do the extrafusal fibers in the muscle spindle do?
They're muscle fibers in the muscle
197
What are the parts of the reflex arc?
- Receptor
- Interneuron
- Effector
198
What are reflexes classified by?
- Innate or acquired
- Spinal or cranial
- Somatic (skeletal mm.) or visceral (Smooth/cardiac mm. and glands)
- Monosynaptic or polysynaptic
199
What is a reflex?
An immediate involuntary motor response to a specific stimulus
200
How is the patellar reflex classified?
- Monosynaptic
- Somatic
- Innate
- Spinal
201
What is the reciprocal inhibition reflex (Cross extensor reflex)?
Pain causing leg to recoil
202
What are the special senses?
- Vision
- Hearing
- Smell
- Taste
- Equilibrium
203
What does the ANS do?
Self governing of visceral organs, smooth muscle, heart rate, pressure, digestion, respiration, urination
204
What does endocrine system do?
Hormones that are chemical messengers to target tissues in organs and tissues
205
What are the parts of the olfactory organs?
- Olfactory epithelium
| - Lamina propria
206
What is the olfactory epithelium made up of?
- Olfactory receptors
- Supporting cells
- Basal (stem) cells
207
What are olfactory receptors?
Modified neurons with projections into mucus of the upper nasal cavity
208
What does odor substance do?
Binds to the dendrites and may cause depolarization of olfactory neuron
209
What is the lamina propria made up of?
- Olfactory glands
- Blood vessels
- Nerves
210
What is the pathway of smells?
Olfactory receptors-> Olfactory bulb (CN I)-> Olfactory cortex (temporal lobe), Hypothalamus, Limbic system
211
What is smell that is interpreted by the CNS based on?
The number of receptors and sensitvity
212
Where are gustatory receptors found?
In tongue, pharynx and larynx
213
What do taste buds on the lateral sides of papilla contain?
- A gustatory cell
- Transitional cell
- Stem cell
214
What is the name of the microvilli at the taste pore on the gustatory cell?
Taste hairs
215
What are the three types of papillae?
- Filiform
- Fungiform
- Circumvallate
216
What are the primary tastes?
- Sweet
- Salty
- Sour
- Bitter
217
What are the additional tastes?
- Fatty
- Starchy
- Metallic
- Pungent
- Stringent
- Umami
- Water (in pharynx)
218
What is the path of gustatory?
Cranial nerves VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal), and X (vagus)-> Nucleus solitarius of the medulla oblongata
219
What carries information to the thalamus in the gustatory pathways?
Medial lemniscus tract
220
What takes information to the gustatory pathway?
3rd order neuron
221
What does the external ear do?
Capture
222
What are the parts of the external ear?
- Auricle (pinna)
- Ear canal
- Tympanic membrane (ear drum)
223
What does the middle ear do?
Magnifies
224
What are the parts of the middle ear?
- Malleus, incus, stapes
| - Eustation (auditory) tube
225
What does the inner ear do?
Senses
226
What are the parts of the inner ear?
- Vestibule
- Semicircular canals
- Cochlea
227
The inner ear houses organs for what two purposes?
Balance and audition
228
What makes up the Osseous (bony) labyrinth in the inner ear?
1. Semicircular canals (balance)
2. vestibule
3. Cochlea (audition)
*contains perilymph
229
What makes up the membranous labyrinth in the inner ear?
1. Semicircular ducts (balance)
2. Uticle and saccule
3. Cochlear ducts (audition)
*contains endolymph
230
What does the stapes vibrate?
Oval window of vestibule
231
Where do vibrations go after the oval window of vestibule?
Down the cochlea and vibrate the organ of corti
232
What is activated when the basilar membrane and tectorial membrane vibrate?
Hair cells
233
What is the auditory pathway?
Cochlear branch of cranial nerve VIII->cochlear nucleus of vestibulocochlear nucleus in medula and pons-> Thalamus and cerebral cortex with collaterals to inferior colliculus for the auditory reflex
234
What does the macula in the ear contain?
Statoconia (otoconia) crystals on a gel membrane surrounding hair cells
235
What activates statoconia (otoconia) crystals?
Head orientation and acceleration
236
What do the receptors in the Ampulla in the ear respond to?
Rotational movements of head
237
What is the balance pathway?
Info from hair cells-> Vestibular nucleus in the pons and medulla
238
Where does the balance pathway output go?
- Thalamus
- Superior colliculus
- Vestibulospinal tract
- Cerebellum
- red nucleus
239
What parts make up the vision system?
- Eye
- Lacrimal gland
- Lacrimal sac
- 6 muscles
240
What are the 6 muscles of the eye?
- Superior rectus
- Inferior rectus
- Medial rectus
- Lateral rectus
- Superior oblique
- Inferior oblique
241
What are the parts of the fibrous tunic of the eye?
- Cornea (anterior chamber with aqueous humor)
| - Sclera (Posterior chamber with vitreous fluid)
242
What are the parts of the vascular tunic of the eye?
- Choroid
- Lens (suspensory ligaments and ciliary bodies)
- Iris (Pupillary sphincter muscle)
243
What are the parts of the neural tunic?
- Pigment layer
| - retina
244
What are rods in the eye sensitive to?
Dim light
245
What are cones in the eye for?
Color vision
246
What are the cells in the eye?
- Rods
- Cones
- Ganglion cells
- Bipolar cells
247
What is the optic disc of the eye?
Convergence of estimated 1million ganglion cells
248
What is the vision pathway?
Optic nerve (CN II)-> Optic chiasm-> Optic tract-> Thalamus-> Cerebral cortex in occipital lobe
249
What are the three divisions of the ANS?
- Sympathetic (Excitation fight or flight)
- Parasympathetic (Inhibition rest and digest)
- Enteric (relfexes of the wall of the intestines)
250
What are the motor nerves of the ANS and what do they release?
- Preganglionic neuron begins in spinal cord (Ach)
- Ganglion of neurons outside of spinal cord
- Postganglionic neuron from ganglion to target organ (Parasymph-Ach symph-Norepi and epi)
251
What parts of the spine make up the sympathetic division?
Thoracolumbar division (T1-L2)
252
What are alpha receptors of the sympathetic division involved in?
-Smooth muscle constriction and closure of sphincters along the digestive tract
253
What are the beta receptors of the sympathetic division involved in?
- Skeletal muscles, respiratory pathways, heart, and liver
| - Cause increased energy rate and increased heart rate due to dilation of blood vessels
254
What can decrease the effects of beta receptors of the sympathetic division?
Beta blockers
255
What part of the spine makes up the parasympathetic division of ANS?
Craniosacral division
256
What nerve carries most of the parasympathetic output?
Vagus nerve
257
What does the enteric division of ANS control?
Visceral reflexes involving sensory receptor, interneuron, preganglionic neuron and postganglionic neuron
258
Do endocrine glands have ducts?
No
259
What does the endocrine system compliment?
Nervous system in body responses to external and internal stimuli
260
What control endocrine system secretion?
Hypothatlamus
261
What are the divisions of endocrine secretions?
- Amino Acid derived (protein)
- Peptides (Amino acid chains)
- Steroids (lipids)
262
What does the hypothalamus do?
Sends signals to pituitary to stimulate hormone production and or secretion
263
What are the two pathways for hypothalamic control?
- Send hormones to anterior pituitary to release more hormones (Travels down portal vein)
- Send neuro-hormones (nt via axon) down to posterior pituitary to be released
264
What are the endocrine glands?
- Pituitary
- Thyroid
- Parathyroid
- Adrenal
- Pancreas
- Gonads
- Pineal
- Thymus
- Stomach
- Small intestine
- Kidneys
265
What are the testes?
Reproductive organs and gonads
266
What are the reproductive tracts?
- Epididymis
- Vas deferens
- Urethra
- Penis
267
What are the reproductive accessory glands?
- Seminal vesicle
| - prostate
268
What are the functions of the epididymis?
- First part of reproductive tract
- Monitors and adjusts composition of the fluid produced by seminiferous tubules
- Stores spermatozoa and facilitates their functional maturation
- Acts as a recycling center for damages spermatozoa
269
What makes up the spermatic cord?
- Vas deferens
- Testicular artery
- Testicular vein
- Ductus deferens
270
What are the three parts of the urethra?
- Prostatic urethra
- Membranous urethra
- Penile (spongy) urethra
271
What are the parts of the penis?
- Bulb
- Shaft
- Glans (head)
- Corpus cavernosa (2)
- Corpus spongiosum (1)
- Prepuce
272
What is going on with the penis during resting period?
corpus cavernosum and corpus spongiosum remain empty.
| Central arteries are prevented from storing blood by muscular partitions
273
What is going on with the penis during erection?
After parasympathetic stimulation the arteriole walls relax:
- Vessels dilate
- Blood flow increases
- Vascular channels become engorged
- Erection fo penis occurs
274
Go over male and female anatomical charts.
yeppers
