Final Flashcards
(172 cards)
1
Q
What do scientists do?
A
Conduct research of observable phenomena
2
Q
A law is a
A
Description
3
Q
A theory is an
A
Explanation
4
Q
Artificial selection
A
Choosing and breeding organisms with desired traits (done by humans)
5
Q
When and where did artificial selection start, with what?
A
10-12,000 years ago, Europe, Brassica (mustard)
6
Q
Ancient Egypt ideas of inheritance
A
Ancient cultures recognized inheritance, offspring resemble their parents
7
Q
Aristotle ideas of inheritance
A
All fluid referred to as a different kind of “blood” (mixing of bloods), “royal/pure-blooded”
8
Q
17th century ideas of inheritance
A
Microscope, ovists & spermists
9
Q
Ovists
A
Thought egg had human in it, sperm had magic spark to “animate” egg
10
Q
Spermists
A
Thought little human in all sperm, sperm needs to get to habitable egg to become human
11
Q
18th century ideas of inheritance
A
Blending theory, all traits would be halfway between both parents, traits could show up in later generations
12
Q
Gregor Mendel
A
Austrian empire, farming family, maintained bees, got sick a lot, studied theology, philosophy, physics, did biology for fun
13
Q
True breeding
A
Artificial selection has been going on for so long we are guaranteed what is going to grow
14
Q
Monohybrid cross
A
One trait
15
Q
Phenotype
A
The traits observed (physical)
16
Q
Genotype
A
Combination of all alleles (BB, Bb, bb, genetic)
17
Q
Principle of Segregation
A
Two alleles can separate and recombine
18
Q
Principle of Independent Assortment
A
Different traits (genes) can be inherited independently
19
Q
Mendel rediscovered
A
1900s, “Father of Genetics”, Friedrich Meischer, discovered nuclein (DNA), chromosomes observed with microscopes
20
Q
Chromosomes are made of
A
DNA
21
Q
DNA is made of
A
Sugar, phosphate, 4 bases
22
Q
The 4 bases are
A
Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine, Adenine
23
Q
The substance of heredity is
A
DNA
24
Q
Erwin Chargaff
A
Discovered cytosine = guanine and thymine = adenine
25
James Watson & Francis Crick
Discovered shape of DNA
26
Rosalind Franklin
Did experiment for the shape of DNA
27
Gene
Part of DNA that codes for protein
28
Alleles
Versions of genes
29
Proteins
The structures of life
30
Essential amino acids
Human bodies cannot make them
31
Polypeptide
Chain of amino acids
32
Collagen
Structure, most of the body
33
Ferritin
Storage, holds on to iron until the body needs it
34
Hemoglobin
Transport, red blood cells, carries oxygen around the body
35
Rhodopsin
Receptor, retina of eye, receives light
36
Growth hormone
Messages, sending messages between glands, increase of cell division
37
Antibody
Binding
38
Lactase
Enzyme, breaks down lactose
39
Linus Pauling
Nobel Prize Chemistry 1954, Nobel Peace Prize 1962
40
Protein synthesis
Transcription & translation
41
Transcription
Making an RNA copy of a gene
42
Translation
RNAs indicate the order of amino acids
43
Anabolic steroids
Increase transcription
44
Some antibiotics
Block bacterial transcription
45
Complete dominance
Only the dominant allele's protein is produced
46
Incomplete dominance
A little of each protein is produced
47
Co-dominance
A lot of each protein is produced
48
Polygenic
Multiple genes determine a trait (eye color)
49
Mutations
Change in DNA, big or small
50
Chromosomal mutations
Structural change, karyotype, irregular number
51
Structural change
Deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation
52
Karyotype
Image of someone's chromosomes
53
Irregular number
3 of chromosome 21 instead of 2 (Down's syndrome)
54
Point mutations
Base mutations, usually not a big deal, can affect the protein made, cause sickle cell anemia
55
Causes of mutations
Mistakes during DNA replication, damage from external agents (mutagens: radiation, chemicals, pathogens)
56
Future generations only get mutations
If they're in sperm/egg
57
Impacts of mutations
Repaired, no impact, negative impact (fatal), positive impact (rare)
58
Traits of genetics research organisms
Easy to care for, short generation time, large numbers of offspring, identifiable mutations (fruit flies)
59
Thomas Hunt Morgan
Studied sex-linked traits and crossing over, linked Mendel and Darwin's theories
60
Gene expression
All cells in an organism have the same genes, but only some are used
61
Epigenetics
Chemicals attach to chromosomes and change the way genes work
62
Histone modification
Where you make a change to the histone and it causes the DNA to unravel
63
Epigenetics paradigm
Old: inheritance = DNA
New: inheritance = DNA + chemicals
64
Genomes
All of the hereditary information found in an organism (consistent across members of the same species)
65
Number of chromosomes and genes in humans
Chromosomes: 46, genes: 23,000
66
Non-coding "junk" DNA
Transposons, can be copied and move around, can be transcribed but does not translate, increased variation
67
Fruit fly life stages
Egg, larva, pupa, adult
68
Fertilization
1N + 1N = 2N
69
Mitosis
2N to 2N, cells as identical as the body can make, (excessive mitosis can cause cancer)
70
Meiosis
2N to 1N, produces egg and sperm
71
Master control genes
One gene controls many genes
72
HOX genes
Organize head, thorax, abdomen
73
Albinism
Melanin protein is not produced
74
Phenotypes impacted by
Genetics and environmental factors
75
Nature vs nurture
Genetics = nature, environmental factors = nurture
76
Rat cognitive ability is based on
Genetics and diet (nature and nurture)
77
Heterochromia
2 eye colors, caused by genetics or injury
78
Sex-influenced traits
Hormones activate genes (fuzzy antlers, peacock feathers)
79
Thalidomide
Used to be for morning sickness, but caused certain parts of the body to not develop, now used to alleviate nausea in cancer patient
80
Human genome
2N: 46
1N: 23
81
Autosomes
Non-sex chromosomes
82
Chromosome 18
Vulnerable, most fetuses don't survive mutations to it
83
Family pedigree
```
Square = male
Circle = female
```
84
Examples of point mutations
```
Cystic fibrosis (CF)
Huntington's disease (HD), Hemophilia,
```
85
Cystic fibrosis (CF)
Recessive, chromosome 7, build up of mucus
86
Huntington's disease (HD)
Dominant, chromosome 4, neural damage
87
Hemophilia
Sex-linked recessive, gene on x not matched by y, causes slow blood clotting, affected royal family of Queen Victoria and King Albert
88
Henrietta Lacks
- Died from cervical cancer
- Cells were removed and cultured
- HeLa cells survived
- Went through excessive mitosis
- Sent around the world
- Still alive today
89
Cause of cancer
- Proto-oncogene mutates into oncogene
- Typically due to point mutations
- Tumor-suppressor gene malfunctions
90
Chromosome 17
Inherited mutation, BRCA1, causes 87% chance of breast cancer
91
Undifferentiated (stem cells)
Cells that haven't become tasked with a job
92
Source of stem cells
Embryo, newborn, adult
93
Pluripotent stem cells
Can become anything (from embryonic stem cells)
94
Multipotent stem cells
Can become certain things
95
Gel electrophoresis
Separates DNA fragments by size, makes unique DNA "fingerprints"
96
Examples of prenatal genetic screening
Amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling
97
Gene therapy
Using genes to prevent or treat disease, viruses insert genetic material into cells
98
Somatic cell gene therapy
Used on children and adults
99
Germline gene therapy
Used on embryos
100
Eugenics movement
To "improve genetic quality of human population", was anti-immigrant
101
Eugenics sterilization legislation
Upheld by Supreme Court in 1927
102
Biotechnology
Manipulate life to develop products (medical treatment, food supply, profit)
103
How to engineer new organisms using technology
Cut, amplify, insert, grow, identify
| CAIGA
104
Cut
Restriction enzymes cut DNA
105
Amplify
Polymerase enzymes copy DNA
106
Insert
Insert DNA fragments into bacteria
107
Grow
Grow bacteria with the gene
108
Identify
Make sure the gene works
109
Plasmids
Circular bacterial DNA
110
BT corn
GMO corn with a little bacteria, repels the corn borer
111
Golden rice
GMO, contains Vitamin A
112
Examples of GMO animals
Salmon, mosquitoes, GloFish, chimeras
113
Types of cloning
Gene, therapeutic, reproductive
114
Genetic engineering
Altering an organism's genetic makeup (add, delete, or transfer genes)
115
Telomeres
- End of chromosomes
- Contain protective junk
- Shorten over time from mitosis
- Cells can die when they get too short
116
Telomerase
Restores telomeres, switches off at a young age
117
What cells always have telomerase?
Cancer cells
118
Free radicals
Highly reactive atoms/molecules
119
Antioxidants
Bind to free radicals
120
Mitochondrial DNA damage
Results in lower cell energy/cell death
121
Rhesus macaque experiment
Studied diet and longevity, found limited longevity impact but improved quality of life
122
Gene editing
Uses CRISPR-cas nuclease, precise insertion, deletion, and replacement
123
Relic DNA
Cloning recently extinct species (Pyrenean ibex, bacteria, yeast, Passenger pigeon, Wooly mammoth)
124
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Theory of acquired characteristics, 19th century evolution
125
HMS Beagle trip
- Supposed to take 2 years, took 5
- Darwin was seasick
- Drew pictures of everything
126
Findings of HMS Beagle trip
- 200 species of barnacles
- Pigeons (artificial selection of them)
- Orchids
- Finches (beak variation)
127
Alfred Wallace
Published similar idea as Darwin, traveled through Indonesia, famous for biogeology
128
Darwin's work
- Clarified laws of evolution
| - Provided theory (natural selection)
129
Genetic drift
Something gets wiped out for a random reason unrelated to fitness ("survival of the luckiest")
130
Species
Individuals that can successfully interbreed
131
How do new species form?
Reproductive isolation
132
Allopatric speciation
Isolated over time in different locations
133
Sympatric speciation
Isolated over time in same location
134
Types of reproductive isolation in sympatric speciation
Temporal, behavioral, mechanical
135
Temporal
Time of year
136
Behavioral
Mating differences
137
Mechanical
Physically can't mate
138
Polyploidy
More chromosomes due to meiosis error
139
Progression
One species becomes another
140
Adaptive radiation
One species becomes many
141
Hybrid
A cross between two different species
142
Stratigraphy
Rock strata (layers), including fossils
143
Geochronology
Geologic time, radiometric dating
144
Geologic time
Supereons, eons, eras, periods
145
Precambrian supereon
4.6 bya - 544 mya, Hadean eon, Achean eon
146
Hadean eon
Hot mess, early land forms being created
147
Archean eon
Continents forming
148
Creation of amino acids
Gases + water + energy
149
Creation of bacteria
4 bya, "microbial mats" in low-oxygen waters, can be fossilized
150
2.8 bya
Cyanobacteria can carry out photosynthesis
151
Oxygen atmosphere
Proterozoic eon, eukaryotes, multicellular life (in water), animals (ancestors of jellyfish, sea fans)
152
Phanerozoic eon
544 mya, paleozoic, mesozoic, cenozoic
153
Paleozoic era
544-245 mya, "Cambrian explosion", lots of fossils, hard shells, bones, trilobites, first vertebrate (fish), Pangea
154
End of Paleozoic
90% of species go extinct
155
Mesozoic era
245-65 mya, "Age of Reptiles", dinosaurs everywhere
156
End of Mesozoic
75% of species go extinct (meteorite), bird dinosaurs, mammals and fish survive
157
Cenozoic era
65 mya - present, "Age of Mammals", grass is staple in human and mammal diet
158
Mass extinctions
Permian, cretaceous
159
Permian mass extinction (P-T)
250 mya, climate change + catastrophe
160
Cretaceous mass extinction (K-T/Pg)
65 mya, catastrophe + climate change
161
Causes of mass extinction
Catastrophes & climate change (can trigger each other), other species, humans
162
Earth's current total species count
10+ million species
163
Current extinction rate
~10,000 species/year (most microscopic)
164
Dodo
Identified in 1598, extinct in 1662
165
Passenger pigeon
3+ billion in 1850, extinct in 1914
166
Bottleneck genetic diversity
Drastic reduction in population
167
Extinction spiral
- Habitat loss
- Smaller population
- Fewer adults and less genetic diversity
- Fewer offspring and inbreeding
- Extinction
168
Northern elephant seal
30 in 1890, 200,000 now, all from same gene pool and could be wiped out by a single factor
169
Cheetah
Likely will go extinct in this century
170
"Wild" genes
- Wild strawberries, Utah = Everbearing strawberries
- Wild blueberries, Florida = drought-resistant blueberries
- Periwinkle flower, Madagascar = battles leukemia
- Calophyllum tree, Indonesia = inhibits HIV production in humans
171
Current genetic diversity efforts
Habitat maintenance, DNA/genome banks, breeding programs
172
Giant panda
Bottleneck: 43,000 ya, now 280 in captivity & 1000+ in wild
