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A&P2 Spring 25’ > Final: AP2 29 Apr 25 > Flashcards

Final: AP2 29 Apr 25 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the typical pKa of bicarbonate?

A

6.1

Bicarbonate is a crucial buffer in the blood, despite the normal pH being around 7.4.

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2
Q

What is the primary buffer system in the blood?

A

Bicarbonate buffer system

Other buffers include proteins, which also play an important role.

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3
Q

What is the percentage of oxygen in atmospheric air at sea level?

A

21%

This percentage is used to calculate partial pressures of gases.

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4
Q

What is the partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) at sea level?

A

160 mmHg

This is calculated by multiplying the atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg) by the oxygen percentage (0.21).

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5
Q

What happens to the partial pressures of gases when water vapor is added?

A

They decrease

Water vapor displaces a portion of the gases, lowering their partial pressures.

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6
Q

What is the equation for calculating the partial pressure of a gas?

A

Partial pressure = Concentration × (Barometric pressure - Water vapor pressure)

This equation helps adjust for water vapor when calculating gas concentrations.

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7
Q

What is the effect of water vapor on oxygen concentration?

A

It lowers the concentration

The addition of water vapor leads to a displacement of oxygen, reducing its effective concentration.

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8
Q

Where is the primary control of breathing located in the brain?

A

Medulla of the brainstem

The brainstem also includes the midbrain and pons.

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9
Q

What are the main sensors for monitoring blood gases?

A

Peripheral chemoreceptors and central chemoreceptors

Peripheral receptors are located in the carotid arteries and aortic arch; central receptors are in the brainstem.

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10
Q

What do central chemoreceptors primarily respond to?

A

Changes in proton concentration

They are sensitive to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid.

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11
Q

What is the role of peripheral chemoreceptors?

A

Monitor changes in oxygen and carbon dioxide levels

They help regulate respiratory function based on blood gas levels.

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12
Q

What happens to ventilation in response to increased carbon dioxide levels?

A

Ventilation increases

Central chemoreceptors respond quickly to changes in CO2.

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13
Q

What is a typical lung volume during a loud cough?

A

About 2 liters

A loud cough indicates good respiratory function.

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14
Q

What happens to the cough sound as respiratory disease worsens?

A

It becomes muffled

A quieter cough may indicate severe respiratory compromise.

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15
Q

What is the effect of exercise on ventilation?

A

Ventilation increases instantaneously

The body adjusts ventilation based on activity level.

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16
Q

What do baroreceptors monitor?

A

Blood pressure

They are located in the aortic arch and help integrate cardiovascular and respiratory functions.

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17
Q

What is the relationship between the cerebral cortex and ventilation during exercise?

A

The cortex signals the brainstem to increase ventilation

This helps maintain normal blood gas levels during physical activity.

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18
Q

True or False: Breathing is typically a conscious process.

A

False

Breathing is usually an automatic process regulated by the brainstem.

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19
Q

What happens when the body hasn’t figured out how much to increase ventilation?

A

Sensors can get involved, but usually they don’t have to do much if the person is healthy.

This indicates that the body has a primary mechanism for managing ventilation without relying heavily on sensory feedback.

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20
Q

What are the three main factors that chemoreceptors look at for ventilation regulation?

A
  • Arterial PCO2
  • PO2
  • Proton concentration (pH)

Among these, proton concentration is considered the most important for ventilation regulation.

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21
Q

Which factor is typically the most potent in influencing ventilation?

A

Proton concentration

This is followed by PCO2 and then PO2, with PO2 requiring a significant drop to affect ventilation.

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22
Q

What is the first adjustment the respiratory system makes when metabolism increases?

A

Increase in tidal volume

This is usually followed by an increase in respiratory rate.

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23
Q

What is the recommended approach for adjusting ventilation in ventilated patients?

A

Manipulate the tidal volume before changing the respiratory rate.

This helps avoid complications associated with dead space ventilation.

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24
Q

What are the two elements that can change tidal volume and respiratory rate?

A
  • Stronger integratory signals from the brain stem
  • Frequency of firing in motor neurons

These factors control how effectively the respiratory muscles are activated.

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25
How does the nervous system ensure immediate muscle contraction?
By using A alpha motor neurons, which are large and fast. ## Footnote This allows for rapid response necessary for survival situations.
26
What determines the respiratory rate?
The interval between inspiratory and expiratory center firing. ## Footnote Shorter intervals lead to a higher respiratory rate.
27
What types of receptors are present in the lungs to monitor irritants?
* Irritant receptors * Stretch sensors ## Footnote These receptors help the body respond to harmful substances and regulate lung expansion.
28
What is the primary muscle involved in breathing?
Diaphragm ## Footnote The external intercostal muscles also play a significant role, especially during active breathing.
29
What can cause sudden changes in ventilation patterns?
Pain or trauma ## Footnote Significant pain typically increases breathing rate or can cause temporary apnea.
30
What is the role of the brain stem in respiration?
It integrates and coordinates the timing of all respiratory muscles. ## Footnote This ensures that inspiratory and expiratory muscles do not fire simultaneously.
31
Fill in the blank: The sensors in the lungs send feedback to the brain stem via the _______.
vagus nerve ## Footnote This nerve carries sensory information from the lungs to the central nervous system.
32
True or False: The peripheral chemoreceptors respond to changes in arterial oxygen levels immediately.
False ## Footnote These receptors typically do not activate until PO2 drops significantly.
33
What happens to the respiratory system during physical activity?
Ventilation increases to meet metabolic demands, primarily through increases in tidal volume and then respiratory rate. ## Footnote This process helps ensure adequate oxygen delivery and carbon dioxide removal.
34
What is the role of secondary breathing muscles?
They serve as backups for breathing if the primary phrenic nerve is compromised. ## Footnote Secondary breathing muscles help maintain respiration during respiratory distress.
35
How long could the individual in the iron lung breathe without it?
About half an hour to an hour a day. ## Footnote This was possible due to training other respiratory muscles.
36
What happens to the diaphragm when respiratory effort increases?
It contracts stronger, and additional muscle groups assist in ventilation. ## Footnote This leads to faster rates of inspiration and expiration.
37
Which part of the brainstem is primarily responsible for breathing regulation?
The medulla. ## Footnote The medulla contains the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) and the ventral respiratory group (VRG).
38
What are the two basic groups in the medulla involved in respiration?
Dorsal respiratory group (DRG) and ventral respiratory group (VRG). ## Footnote DRG is involved in inspiratory signals, while VRG manages expiratory signals.
39
What is the function of reciprocal inhibition in respiration?
One center inhibits the other to prevent simultaneous activation of inspiratory and expiratory centers. ## Footnote This ensures efficient breathing by coordinating muscle activity.
40
What is the pontine respiratory group involved in?
Modulating the activity of the dorsal and ventral respiratory groups. ## Footnote It is located in the pons of the brainstem.
41
What are the directional terms used in neuroanatomy?
Caudal (tail) and rostral (beak). ## Footnote These terms describe positions in relation to the brain's structure.
42
Which cranial nerves feed sensory information into the brainstem for breathing?
Vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) and glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX). ## Footnote They provide info from gas sensors and irritant receptors.
43
What is the reticular formation's role in breathing control?
It contains centers that regulate respiration, particularly in the lower parts. ## Footnote The medullary respiratory center is part of this formation.
44
Where is the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) located?
In the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) within the reticular formation. ## Footnote The DRG is crucial for generating inspiratory signals.
45
What does the DRG primarily control?
The inspiratory rate and the phrenic nerve activity. ## Footnote It also influences some accessory muscles for inspiration.
46
What is the function of the ventral respiratory group (VRG)?
It controls expiratory signals and some inspiratory muscle activity. ## Footnote It is located on the opposite side of the brainstem from the DRG.
47
What is the bots in your complex associated with?
It is involved in respiratory rhythmogenesis and controlling respiratory rate. ## Footnote It influences the dorsal respiratory group.
48
What does contralateral control mean in the context of the brainstem and respiration?
The right side of the brainstem controls the left side of the body and vice versa. ## Footnote This is due to the decussation of motor signals in the medulla.
49
What is the primary function of the ventral respiratory group?
Controls the openness of the upper airway and assures an open airway ## Footnote It innervates the muscles around the larynx to prevent obstruction of breathing.
50
What does the dorsal respiratory group primarily manage?
Motor control for inspiratory and expiratory muscles ## Footnote It is responsible for most of the motor output related to breathing.
51
What is the role of the pontine respiratory group?
Processes information from irritant receptors and limits the time spent in inspiration ## Footnote It is located at the border of the pons and the medulla.
52
What happens to breathing patterns when there is a lesion in the pontine respiratory group?
Results in prolonged inspiration and very short expiration, known as apneustic breathing ## Footnote This indicates a serious issue in the central nervous system.
53
What is the effect of increased CO2 on brain blood flow?
Increases brain blood flow almost immediately ## Footnote This is due to the dilation of smooth muscle in cerebral blood vessels.
54
Fill in the blank: The central chemoreceptors in the brainstem respond quickly to increases in _______.
CO2
55
What are the primary peripheral chemoreceptors in the body?
Carotid bodies and aortic bodies ## Footnote Carotid bodies monitor blood chemistry at the bifurcation of carotid arteries, while aortic bodies are located on the aortic arch.
56
True or False: Protons can easily cross the blood-brain barrier.
False ## Footnote Charged compounds like protons require transport proteins to cross the blood-brain barrier.
57
What is the typical pH level of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) compared to arterial blood?
Lower than that of arterial blood, around 7.31 to 7.32 ## Footnote This difference is due to the CSF's composition and its buffering system.
58
What is the primary buffer system in cerebrospinal fluid?
Bicarbonate ## Footnote The buffering capacity is influenced by glial cells and the presence of proteins.
59
What are the effects of a lesion separating the pontine respiratory group from the medullary respiratory groups?
Breathing becomes abnormal with prolonged inspiration and shortened expiration ## Footnote This abnormal pattern is referred to as apneustic breathing.
60
Fill in the blank: The _______ respiratory group limits the duration of inspiration.
Pontine
61
What is the relationship between CO2 levels and the activation of central chemoreceptors?
Higher CO2 levels directly activate central chemoreceptors ## Footnote This response is more immediate compared to the response to non-volatile acids.
62
How does the composition of CSF compare to blood in terms of proteins?
CSF has fewer proteins than blood ## Footnote This affects the buffering capacity and pH levels in CSF.
63
What is the primary stimulus that activates central chemoreceptors in the brainstem?
Protons ## Footnote While both CO2 and protons influence these receptors, protons are the primary trigger.
64
What is apneustic breathing and what causes it?
Characterized by prolonged inspiration and short expiration, caused by lesions in the pontine respiratory group ## Footnote This indicates significant dysfunction in the central nervous system.
65
What type of receptors do irritant receptors in the lungs send information to?
Pontine respiratory group ## Footnote This helps regulate breathing in response to irritants.
66
What is the significance of stretch sensors in the lungs?
They provide feedback to limit the duration of inspiration ## Footnote This feedback is integrated within the pontine respiratory group.
67
True or False: The blood-brain barrier allows CO2 to cross easily.
True ## Footnote CO2 is a gas and can diffuse across the blood-brain barrier without difficulty.
68
What are the two main cranial nerves involved in the carotid body pathway?
Cranial nerves IX and X ## Footnote These nerves feed back into the medullary parts of the brain stem.
69
What type of receptors are embedded in the lungs and airway?
Irritant receptors and stretch sensors ## Footnote These receptors feed back into the pontine respiratory group.
70
What is the typical response of the respiratory system under healthy conditions?
Not very active ## Footnote Most actions are programmed to respond to changes in metabolism.
71
What happens when blood chemistry is off, such as low pH or high PCO2?
Ventilation increases ## Footnote Typically, tidal volume changes first, followed by respiratory rate.
72
What is the first adjustment made to ventilation in response to changes in blood chemistry?
Increase in tidal volume ## Footnote If tidal volume adjustment is insufficient, respiratory rate is increased next.
73
How does a decrease in pH or an increase in PCO2 affect cardiac output and blood pressure?
Cardiac output and blood pressure increase ## Footnote This helps to blow off excess CO2 and volatile acids.
74
What is one way to increase the removal of excess CO2 from the body?
Increase cardiac output ## Footnote This pushes more blood through the lungs, enhancing gas exchange.
75
What is the relationship between ventilation and blood pressure?
Ventilation adjustments can affect blood pressure ## Footnote Hypercapnia can increase blood pressure, while hypocapnia may decrease it.
76
What is a potential danger of blowing off too much CO2 in patients with heart problems?
Drop in ionized calcium levels ## Footnote This occurs because freed negatively charged areas on proteins can sequester calcium instead of protons.
77
What pO2 level triggers increased firing frequency of oxygen sensors?
Around 70 mmHg ## Footnote A healthy individual typically has a normal pO2 of about 100 mmHg.
78
How do the sensitivity levels of the respiratory system differ among pO2, PCO2, and protons?
More sensitive to CO2 and protons ## Footnote The system is least sensitive to changes in pO2.
79
What is the immediate effect of rising CO2 levels on respiratory drive?
Respiratory drive picks up almost immediately ## Footnote This illustrates the system's responsiveness to CO2 changes.

A&P2 Spring 25’ (24 decks)

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