Final Exam Flashcards
(131 cards)
1
Q
What is the driving force for water intake?
A
thirst
2
Q
Which compartment holds the largest percentage of the fluid of the body?
A
Intracellular
3
Q
Which of the following hormones is involved in water and electrolyte balance?
A
ADH
4
Q
Which of the following would inhibit sodium reabsorption in the collecting ducts in the kidneys?
A
Atrial natriuretic peptide
5
Q
Which organs are the long-term acid base regulatory organ?
A
kidneys
6
Q
Which acid-base imbalance would be caused by a reduced amount of CO2 in the blood, such as in nervous hyperventilation?
A
Respiratory alkalosis
7
Q
What is the effect of hypoventilation on pH?
A
Respiratory acidosis
8
Q
Which age group most commonly has fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base issues?
A
Infants
9
Q
Which hormone affects blood sodium levels?
A
Aldosterone
10
Q
What type of water imbalance increases the amount of fluid in ALL compartments?
A
Hypotonic dehydration
11
Q
Which of the following buffering systems is the rapid, first line defense to correct acidosis or alkalosis?
A
Chemical buffering systems such as the bicarbonate buffer system
12
Q
Where is the majority of potassium found in the body? In which fluid compartment?
A
Intracellular
13
Q
True or false? There are specific osmoreceptors that monitor solute concentration in body fluids.
A
True
14
Q
Which of the following conditions DOES NOT stimulate the thirst center in the hypothalamus?
A
Low blood pH
15
Q
What condition may be the result of severe, uncontrolled diabetes or severe diarrhea?
A
Metabolic acidosis
16
Q
Atrial natriuretic peptide is a hormone that is made in the atria of the heart. It functions to:
A
Reduce blood pressure and blood volume by inhibiting sodium and water retention
17
Q
Which of the following is considered to be a primary sex organ in the male?
A
testes
18
Q
What is the function of the interstitial cells of the testes?
A
site of testosterone production
19
Q
Which accessory gland in the male produces most of the fluid that makes up semen?
A
Seminal vesicle
20
Q
What is produced in the primary sex organs of females?
A
Ova
21
Q
How many diploid chromosomes do humans have?
A
46
22
Q
Describe Metaphase I
A
Homologous pairs align along the cell’s equator at center of spindle
23
Q
What is the major difference between mitosis and meiosis?
A
Mitosis yields identical daughter cells and meiosis yields genetically different daughter cells
24
Q
The “nurse” cells that do not produce sperm themselves but instead aid in the development of the sperm are
A
Sustentacular or Sertoli cells
25
The name of the structure that develops in the site of the ruptured follicle, which produces progesterone is the
Corpus luteum
26
The term that refers to the rupture of the mature follicle, releasing the secondary oocyte is
Ovulation
27
Where is the secondary oocyte typically fertilized?
In the ampulla of the oviduct
28
There are two main layers of the uterine lining, or endometrium. Which layer in unresponsive to ovarian hormones and is responsible for forming the new layer above it after menstruation?
Stratum basalis
29
What happens to the secondary oocyte as it travels down the oviduct if it meets and is penetrated by a sperm?
It completes Meiosis II to produce the ovum and a second polar body
30
The release of FSH and LH in both sexes stimulated by the release of ____________ from the hypothalamus.
GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)
31
Which hormone spikes to cause ovulation in the female?
LH
32
During the proliferative phase of the uterus, what is occurring?
The stratum functionalis (functional layer) is generated (built up) and progesterone receptors in endometrium increase in number, stimulated by estrogen
33
True or False? Mammary glands are modified sweat glands.
True
34
Which of the following terms could be used to describe the fertilized ovum from its beginning until birth?
Conceptus
35
What is the definition of when fertilization actually occurs?
When the sperm’s DNA combines with the ova’s DNA
36
What is the name of the cellular structure that acutally implants in the uterus?
Blastocyst
37
Implantation typically begins at _________ after ovulation
6-7 days
38
Which hormone of pregnancy is secreted by the placenta as early as the first week post-fertilization, and is elevated until about 2 months after fertilization, when it drops off quickly?
HCG
39
The placenta is fully formed and functional by which month after fertilization?
3rd month
40
Which of the four extraembryonic membranes listed below forms part of the digestive tube and is the source of the earliest blood cells and blood vessels?
Yolk Sak
41
Which embryonic layer gives rise to the epithelial linings of glands and the digestive tract?
Endoderm
42
Which embryonic layer gives rise to the skin and nervous tissue of the embryo / fetus?
Ectoderm
43
The end of the embryonic period occurs at about
8 weeks
44
Which of the following is a normal anatomical or physiological change associated with pregnancy?
Nausea due to elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone
45
During the last few weeks of pregnancy, which hormone is secreted by the fetus that stimulates the placenta to secrete more estrogen?
Cortisol
46
Which two hormones listed below are the primary powerful stimulators of uterine contraction?
Oxytocin
| Prostaglandin
47
Which is the first stage of labor?
Dilation
48
The mammary glands produce a special secretion for the first 2-3 days, which is yellowish, rich in vitamin A, protein and antibodies. What is the name of this special secretion?
Colostrum
49
The hormone that stimulates milk PRODUCTION by the breast tissue is
prolactin
50
What are the 2 major water compartments in the body?
Intracellular Fluid Compartment
Extracelllular Fluid Compartment
51
How much fluid is found in the ICF?
25 L
52
What type of fluid is found in the ECF? How much fluid is this?
Plasma - 3L
Interstitial Fluid - 12 L
Other Elements
Roughly 15L total
53
What are the major cations and ions for the ICF?
Cation: K+
Anion: HPO4 2-
54
What are the major cations and ions for the ECF?
Cation: Na+
Anion: Cl- HCO3-
55
How does water move between compartments? What does each indicate?
Osmotic Pressure - willingness to move
| Hyrostatic Pressure - pushing pressure
56
What is negative fluid balance?
Too little water/dehydration
ECF Fluid loss
57
What is hypotonic hydration?
Too much water, salty cells
Water intoxication treated with hypertonic saline
58
What are buffers?
Chemicals that slow pH changes
59
What are the 3 main groups of buffer systems? Which is the first line of defense? Which acts the quickets?
Chemical Buffer Systems - 1st line of defense, fastest
Brain Stem Respiratory
Renal Mechanism
60
What are the chemical buffer systems ranked from most to least important?
Bicarbonate
Phosphate
Protein
61
What is the bicarbonate buffer system/
Buffers ICF and ECF
| Acts rapidly by releasing or binding H+ ion
62
What is the role of the respiratory center?
Eliminate CO32
Triggers to increase rate when in acidosis
Depresses rate when low CO2
63
What is the role of the renal mechanism?
Depends on secretion of H+ in the PCT and collecting duct
64
What organs play a role in acid-base regulation? How?
kidneys,
Kidneys - remove excess H+ from blood
65
What organ is responsible for balancing electrolytes?
kidneys
66
Metabolic acidosis
pH is too acidic
Too much alcohol
Loss of HCO3 (bicarbonate)
Lactic acid build up to kidney failure, shock, ketosis
67
Metabolic alkalosis
Rising blood pH and HCO3-
Excessive vommitting and loss of acid contents, too many antacids
68
What does a pH below 7 lead to?
CNS depression
Coma
Death
69
What does a pH above 7.8 lead to?
```
Excitation of nervous system,
muscle tetany
Nervousness
convulsions
respiratory arrest
death
```
70
Respiratory acidosis
Too much CO2
Increases rate/depth to eliminate CO2, causing pH to rise
71
Respiratory alkalosis
Too little CO2
Depresses respiratory rate/depth to retain CO2 and decrease pH
72
Main hormones affecting sodium balance
```
aldosterone
atrial natriuretic peptide
estrogen
progesterone
glucocorticoids
```
73
Affect of Aldosterone on Sodium balance
- What triggers
- Speed
Promotes sodium reabsorption in PCT
Triggered my angiotensin II in response to low blood pressure and osmolality
Very slow
74
Affect of ANP on Sodium balance
Released in response to tissue stretch (high blood pressre) to decrease blood pressure
Reduces ADH, renin and aldosterone and angiotinsin II production
Increase excretion of Na+ and H20
75
Affect of estrogen on sodium balance
Increase NaCL reabsorption
76
Affect of Progesterone on sodium balance
Decrease sodium reabsorption
77
Glucocorticoids
Increase sodium reabsorption and promoting edema
78
What are electrolytes?
Salts
Acids
Bases
Fluid movement
neuromuscular excitability
secretory activity
membrane permeability
79
What is normal body pH
7.35-7.45
80
What is the role of ADH?
Save water
Aquaporins inserted into cell membrane of collecting ducts
less adh - dilute urine
more adh - concentrated urine
81
Identify the primary sex organs in male and female
Male - testes
| Female - ovaries
82
Explain which glands contribute to seminal fluid
Seminal Vesicles - 70%
Prostate
Cowper's Glands/Bulbourethral
Semen
83
Where are sperm produced?
seminiferous tubule
84
3 phases of sperm production
mitosis
meiosis
spermiogenesis
85
How are sperm transported?
Testicular fluid secreted by nurse cells into lumen
86
Where are sperm stored and matured?
epididymis running along side testicle
87
What cells produce testosterone? Where are they found?
Leydig interstitial Cells found adjacent to seminiferous tubules in testes
88
What are the effects of GnRH release?
Stimulate secretion of FSH and LH from pituitary gland
89
Role of FSH
M -increase spermatogenic testosterone receptors
F- Stimulates grown of eggs and regulates menstrual cycle
90
Role of LH
M - stimulates release of testosterone from interstital cells
F- ovulation
91
What hormone causes gonadotropin release? Where does it come from?
GnRH from hypothalamus
92
What are gonadotropins?
regulate ovarian and testicular function
93
Know the steps and the end result of meiosis.
prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase
telophase
final product: 4 haploid daughter cells
94
Multiple names for nurse cells
Sustanticular
| Sertolli
95
What do nurse cells do?
Aid in development of sperm by
1) Provide nutrients and signals to dividing cells
2) Dispose of excess cytoplasm during spermiogenesis
3) Secrete fluid into lumen for sperm transportation
96
Explain the development of the oocyte – especially the stages at which Meiosis is paused and when it finishes.
Oogonia
Primary - arrest in Prophase 1
After puberty, secondary oocyte + polar body produced, 2ndary arrests in metaphase II and then produces ovum and second polar body
97
When does a primary oocyte arrest in meiosis I?
prophase 1
98
When does a secondary oocyte arrest?
metaphase II
99
Layers of the endometrium, which one is shed? When one is maintained?
Inner stratum functionalis - responds to hormones and shed
| outer stratum basalis - not shed, not responsive to hormones, becomes new functonalis
100
Identify the 3 phases of the menstrual or uterine cycle
Mentstrual
Proliferative
Secretory
101
What happens during the menstrual cycle?
hormones at lowest
Gonadotrpins rise
Stratum functionalis is shed, flow begins
102
What happens during the proliferative cycle?
Estrogen promotes growth of new stratum functionalis
Increases progesterone receptors in endometrium
Increase glands
103
What happens during secretory?
Progesterone is dominant
Development of endometrial lining
Secretion of Glycogen
Mucus Plug formed
104
When does ovulation typically occur in the menstrual cycle?
Day 14, LH surge
105
What STDs are bacterial?
Gonorrhea
Syphillis
Chlamydia
106
What STDs are viral?
Genital Warts
| Genital Herpes
107
What is the most common STD in the US?
Chlamydia
108
When and where does fertilization usually occur? What is happening at the moment of fertilization?
Ampulla of the oviduct
Sperm chromosomes combine with 2ndary oocyte to form fertilized egg/zygote
109
Zygote
diploid cell
| fertilized ovum
110
Morula
solid ball of cells resulting from division of a fertilized ovum
111
Blastocyst
Fertilized egg on day 5 or 6, rapidly dividing ball of cells
Outer portion becomes placenta
Inner becomes embryo
112
What is relaxin, where is it made, and what does it do?
Hormone that causes relaxation of pelvic and pubic ligaments
made in corpus leutum
113
What is the survival time for the secondary oocyte once ovulated?
12-24 hours
114
How long can sperm survive in the female reproductive tract?
24-48 hours
115
Gestation Period
Last menstrual period to birth
116
Embryonic Stage
conceptus-week 8
117
What does the endoderm produce?
Epithelial linings of GI, respiratory and uriogenital tract
118
What does the mesoderm produce?
muscle cells
| organs
119
What does the ectoderm prudce?
skin/nervous system
120
Who produces HCG?
placental membrane
121
3 stages of labor
dilation
expulsion
placental
122
What happens during dilation?
Longest period
Contractions start weak and grow strong
Cervix thins and dilates to 10 cm
Engagement happens
123
What happens during expulsion
Strong contractions 2-3 minutes, lasting 60 seconds
urge to push
delivery of baby
124
What happens during placental?
Contractions continue for 30 minutes after birth to produce placenta
125
Role of Amnion
Becomes transparent sak filled with fluid for protection
126
Position of Yolk Sak and Role
Hangs from ventral surface of embryo
Forms part of digestive system
Gives rise to blood vessels and cells, germ cells
127
Allantois
Sticks out from yolk sak
Base of umbillical chord
Forms urinary bladder
128
Chorion
Forms placenta
Encloses embryonic body and membranes
Site of gas and nutrient exchange
129
Which hormones stimulate the powerful uterine contractions of labor?
Oxytocin
| Prostaglandin
130
Which hormone stimulates milk production and which hormone stimulates milk let down?
Production - prolactin
Milk letdown - oxytocin
131
Describe the hormonal signals produced by the fetus that initiate labor.
Fetus produces cortisol during last few weeks which stimulates production of oxytocin receptors on myometrium
Produces surfactant protein A to soften cervix
Oxytocin/prostaglandins
