Final Exam Flashcards by Sarah Suarez

CH 1.3)
A standard approach used to test ideas and answer questions about the natural world through empirical evidence (direct experimentation and observation)

the scientific method

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1.3)
What is the scientific method in order?

observation
asking questions about observations
making a hypothesis
make predictions about hypothesis
experiment to test hypothesis
analyze data
draw conclusions (does data support or reject hypothesis)

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1.3)
a testable and falsifiable tentative explanation made for an observable phenomenon with no assumption for its truth

hypothesis

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1.3)
“changeable” elements of an experiment

variables

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1.3)
a condition that is purposely changed to see if it has an affect on some other factor

independent variable
(IV=the thing you change in the experiment)
(depicted on the x-axis, horizontal)

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1.3)
the factor that is measured to see if it changes depending on the changing independent variable

dependent variable
(DV= the thing you measure in the experiment)
(depicted on the y-axis , vertical)

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1.3)
other conditions held constant for all subjects in order to only test the specific effects of the IV on the DV

standardized variables

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1.3)
A group that does not receive a treatment and serves as a basis for comparison.

control group

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1.3)
assigning experimental subjects to different groups in a random fashion

randomization

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1.3)
measurable change not attributable to
medication or treatment

placebo effect

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1.3)
Describe the 3 different blind methods in a experiment

Single-blind study: only the subjects do not
know what treatment they are receiving

Double-blind study: both subjects AND
investigators do not know what treatments

Triple-blind study: neither subject, investigator,
or data analyst know who got what

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1.3)
a very broad in scope comprehensive explanation for natural phenomena based on numerous studies

theory

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1.3)
the practical application of scientific knowledge and provides tools for scientific inquiry and advancement.

technology

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1.3)
statements and beliefs claiming scientific merit yet results are typically not based on the scientific method, controlled experiments, or peer review

pseudoscience

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2.1)
individual particles of pure matter (elements)

atoms

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2.1)
any material that occupies physical space in the universe

matter

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2.1)
a pure atomic substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means into other substances

element

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2.1)
what is the difference between elements atomic number and atomic mass?

atomic number is the # of protons in the nucleus while atomic mass is calculated by adding the masses of sub-atomic particles and standardized
in “atomic mass units” (AMU

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2.1)
What 6 elements make up about 98% of the mass of most organisms?

nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur

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2.1)
an atom with extra of fewer electrons

ion
cation - lose electron
anion - gain an electron

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2.1)
modified atom that has extra neutrons

isotope

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2.1)
the average atomic mass of all isotopes of an element

Atomic weight

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2.2)
the attraction of atoms through the sharing or
stealing electrons

chemical bond

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2.2)
the electrons occupying the outermost electron shell and are other electrons available for chemical reactions

valence electrons

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2.2) How many electrons fit in the outer shells?

2.2) what kind of bond? - the electrostatic attraction between a cation (+) and an anion (-) - occurs between two atoms with very different EN whose valence shells are nearly full and nearly empty

ionic bond

2.2) What kind of bond? - 2+ atoms share valence electrons which binds them together - occur when two atoms share electrons to complete each other’s valence shell needs - usually depicted as dots or lines between atomic symbols

covalent bond

2.2) weak electrostatic attraction between a proton (often H) in one molecule and an electronegative atom (like O,N,F) in another molecule

hydrogen "bonds" is

2.5) macromolecules composed of many similar units covalently bound together ex: natural rubber, starches, fiber, DNA/RNA, proteins etc..

polymer

2.5) the single units of a polymer

monomer

2.5) the process by which water is split/broken up

hydrolysis

2.5) molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It has a ratio of 1:2:1

carbohydrate

a plant polysaccharides (a starch) is used as energy storage molecule in plants

amylose

2.5) polysaccharides cellulose (fiber) is used for structure in the plant cell wall - IS NOT DIGESTIBLE BY HUMANS

cellulose

2.5) animals store glucose in muscle and liver in the form of what?

glycogen

2.5) What are proteins ? and what are they made up of?

they are polymers made up of amino acid monomers. it is a chain of amino acids linked by covalent peptide bonds

2.5) What determines the main acid order in proteins?

The DNA sequences of protein-coding genes determine the amino acid sequence of proteins.

2.5) which of the 4 levels of structure in proteins? : the linear sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide

primary

2.5) which of the 4 levels of structure in proteins? : hydrogen bonds between amino acids cause chain to coil, form sheets, or make loops - alpha helix and beta sheets

secondary

2.5) which of the 4 levels of structure in proteins? : the final folded shape of a single polypeptide chain

tertiary

2.5) which of the 4 levels of structure in proteins? : some proteins require multiple polypeptide chains for function

quaternary

2.5) What does protein shape depend on?

Protein shape depends son amino acid sequence and R-groups

2.5) What protein function depend on?

Protein function is critically dependent on shape (conformation)

2.5) What is denaturing?

Denaturing is the process by which a protein destroys the 3D shape and results in permanent loss of a structure and function.

2.5) What are the biological functions that proteins perform in a cell?

structural functions, contractile/movement functions, transportation, and storage/energy functions

2.5) a 2-stranded nucleic acid polymer that contains all genetic instructions for each organism and is used to move genetic information through time (reproduction)

deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA)

2.5) a single-stranded nucleic acid polymer that is essential in the expression of genes * “middleman” between DNA and protein

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

2.5) What nucleotides are associated with DNA?

adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine

2.5) What nucleotides are associated with RNA?

adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil

2.5) Through what process does DNA and RNA form base pairs? (adenine with thymine.. etc)

hydrogen bonding

2.5) when does RNA base pairing occur?

during RNA synthesis and during protein synthesis

2.5) What is the central dogma of biology?

DNA->RNA->Protein

2.5) a general class of carbon-based non-polar or very weakly polar molecules with numerous functions including desiccation, cell membrane, insulation, and energy

lipids

2.5) What are the types of lipids?

fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes

2.5) These are major components cell membranes and have unique chemistry resulting in a bilayer in aqueous environment. They can orient based on polarity and hydrophobicity

phospholipids

2.5) When dumped in a mix of oil and water, what part of the phospholipid is exposed to the oil and what part is exposed to then water?

The NONPOLAR HYDROPHOBIC tails (fatty acids) are exposed to the oil. The POLAR HYDROPHILIC heads are exposed to water

3.2) What cell structures do both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have in common?

chromosomes, cytosol, plasma (cell) membrane, and ribosomes

3.2) * DNA found in nucleoid region * Organelle (not membrane-bound): Ribosomes for protein production * Possess a carbohydrate and protein cell wall around the cell membrane (bacteria= peptidoglycan) * Sometimes produce a polysaccharide capsule or mucilage * Pili and Flagella/ flagellum- sensory and movement structures

This describes : a prokaryotic cell (domain bacteria and domain archaea)

3.2) What are the general eukaryotic cell features?

* DNA in nucleus * Mitochondria (ATP production) * Membrane system and organelles: - ER - Golgi - vesicles - peroxisomes

3.2) What is an animal specific eukaryotic feature?

lysosomes

3.2) What is a fungi-specific eukaryotic feature?

cell wall - chitin

3.2) What are some plant - specific eukaryotic features?

* Cell wall- cellulose * Central vacuole * Chloroplasts (photosynthesis) * Plasmodesmata- pores between cells

3.4) What are the two processes of gene expression?

transcription and translation

3.4) This gene expression begins in the nucleus and copies the coding sequence of DNA into the complementary messenger RNA (aka mRNA) sequence

transcription (think about "transcribing" notes from a textbook)

3.4) This gene expression continues in the cytoplasm when mRNA is used as a template to synthesize protein. - mRNA will exit the nucleus and encounter free or bound ribosomes - Ribosomes are protein and RNA-based organelles that build proteins from mRNA code (synthesis)

translation ( think about translating one language into another language.. nucleic acid --> amino acid)

3.4) This system is used to make, modify, and move various cellular products (protein, carbohydrate, or lipid) to specific cellular locations or outside the cell

eukaryotic endomembrane system

3.4) the eukaryotic site for lipid synthesis and chemical detoxification in the cell

smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

3.4) the eukaryotic site for further modification and packaging of proteins (aka the cellular "post office" )

Golgi apparatus

3.4) the recycling and garbage removal centers of animal cells - Break down foreign components or damaged organelles - is found in many white blood cells - has a pH of 4.8

lysosomes

3.4) What structures do plant cells have that animal cells DONT have?

cell wall, chloroplasts, and central vacuole

3.4) The cellular energy producing centers in ALL eukaryotic cells - makes ATP

mitochondria

4.4) What is the sum of all cellular reactions in the body (anabolic & catabolic reactions)

metabolism

4.4) a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing a permanent chemical change

a catalyst ex: an enzyme is a catalyst

4.4) What is an active site, a substrate, and an induced model fit?

Active site: a site on the enzyme where the substrate binds Substrate: the molecule(s) that the enzyme processes Induced Fit Model: the enzyme changes shape so it can bind the substrate tighter

4.4) an energetic barrier to spontaneous reactions- additional energy required to get the reaction started (in both exergonic and endergonic rxns)

This is activation energy Note: enzymes lower the required activation needed for reactions and speed up reactions

4.4) Enzyme Regulation: non-substrate molecule fits into the active site and blocks real substrate access * when a competitive inhibitor is bound enzymatic output decline

competitive inhibition

4.4) Enzyme Regulation: remains permanently bound in the active site- renders enzyme dead

suicide inhibitor

4.4) Enzyme Regulation: some cellular product binds to enzyme on a location away from active site --> active site shape changes

allosteric regulation

4.5). What is it called when... * Some molecules can pass freely through the phospholipid bilayer (small, uncharged, non-polar, lipids, gases) * Some require transport proteins (large, charged, and polar) * Others may never enter

selective permeability

4.5) The process by which atoms, ions, molecules, or energy automatically moves from regions of high concentration to low concentration

diffusion

4.5) What is osmosis, describe it?

it is the diffusion of water molecules between two solutions with different solute concentrations and occurs across a selectively permeable membrane

4.5) What are 2 ways to think about osmosis?

1. water molecules diffuse down concentration gradients 2. "water follows solutes

4.5) describe the difference between isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic concentrations

isotonic = "same strength", inside and outside of cell has equal solute concentration hypertonic = the outside of the cell has a higher concentration than inside the cell (cell shrinks and shrivels) hypotonic = the inside of the cell has a higher concentration than the outside of the cell (cell grows and can burst)

4.5) Three Modes of Transmembrane Transport: - requires NO energy - Movement from areas of HIGH to LOW concentration - must be small/non-polar/ hydrophobic

simple diffusion

4.5) Three Modes of Transmembrane Transport: - requires NO energy - movement from areas of HIGH to LOW. concentration - requires a membrane protein

facilitated diffusion

4.5) Three Modes of Transmembrane Transport: - requires cellular energy (ATP/redox). - movement AGAINST concentration gradient from areas of LOW to areas of HIGH concentration - requires a protein called a "pump"

active transport

4.5)