FINAL EXAM Flashcards
(219 cards)
1
Q
What are the six levels of structural organization in the body?
A
A: Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organismal
2
Q
What system is the largest organ in and acts as a protective barrier?
A
A: Integumentary system
Provides sensory information
Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands
3
Q
What system supports/protects the body and is the site of hematopoiesis?
A
A: Skeletal system
4
Q
What muscle type is found only in the heart?
A
A: Cardiac muscle
5
Q
What system coordinates the body’s response to stimuli?
A
A: Nervous system
Contraction of muscle and excretion from endocrine glands
Nervous tissue, spinal cord, brain, special senses, autonomic nervous system
6
Q
What system aids in movement of body/part/systems and where muscles attach to bone?
A
Muscular
7
Q
What system uses hormones to regulate bodily functions?
A
A: Endocrine system
pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal glands
8
Q
What system transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste?
A
A: Cardiovascular system
Hematology (study of blood), heart, arteries, veins
9
Q
What system works with the cardiovascular system to exchange gases?
A
A: Respiratory system
Includes the throat, windpipe and lungs
10
Q
What system defends against pathogens and filters extracellular fluid?
A
A: Immune (Lymphatic) system
lymph nodes (filters), lymphatic vessels
11
Q
What system breaks down food and eliminates solid waste?
A
A: Digestive system
mouth, throat, stomach, intestines, colon
12
Q
What system filters blood and removes liquid waste?
A
A: Urinary system
13
Q
What system enables species propagation?
A
A: Reproductive system
14
Q
What is negative feedback?
A
A: A mechanism that reverses a change to maintain homeostasis (e.g., sweating).
15
Q
What is positive feedback?
A
A: A process that amplifies a change (e.g., contractions)
16
Q
Prone -
A
lying face down
17
Q
Supine -
A
lying face up
18
Q
Anterior (ventral) -
A
front, towards front
19
Q
Posterior (dorsal) -
A
back, towards back
20
Q
Proximal -
A
closer to attachment point
21
Q
Distal -
A
further away from attachment point
22
Q
Medial -
A
towards midline
23
Q
Lateral -
A
away from midline
24
Q
Superior (cranial) -
A
upward in anatomical position
25
Inferior (caudal) -
downward in anatomical position
26
Deep -
further away from surface
27
Superficial -
closer to surface
28
Cephalic -
head
29
Cervical -
neck
30
Thoracic -
chest
31
Lumbar -
lower back
32
Gluteal -
buttocks
33
Abdominal -
belly
34
Pelvic -
between hip bones
35
Femoral -
upper leg
36
Patellar -
knee cap
37
Plantar -
bottom of food
38
Digital -
fingers/toes
39
Axillary -
armpit
40
Brachial -
upper arm
41
Carpal -
wrist
42
Palmar -
palm
43
RUQ contains which major organ?
A: Liver and gallbladder
44
RLQ pain often indicates what?
A: Appendicitis
45
LUQ contains which major organ?
spleen, stomach, pancreas
46
LLQ pain often indicates what?
colon/rectum, resulting in constipation
47
Regions
R hypochondriac, R lumbar region, R iliac region, epigastric region, umbilical region, hypogastric, L hypochondriac, L lumbar region, L iliac region
48
Sagittal Plane -
Any vertical plane that divides body into L/R halves
49
Midsagittal Plane -
Divides directly down the mid-line, equal halves. Median plane
50
○ Parasagittal Plane -
unequal division of L/R
51
○ Frontal Plane -
Plane divides body anterior/posterior
52
○ Transverse Plane -
Plane divides body from upper/lower
53
○ Oblique Plane -
Plane divides body at an angle, diagonal plane, 2+ planes
54
What are protons
Largest particle in atom's nucleus, + charge
55
What are neutrons
In atom's nucleus, no charge
56
What are electrons
Nearly no mass, - charge
57
What is the mass number of an atom?
A: Total number of protons and neutrons
58
What is the pH of blood?
A: ~7.4 (neutral)
59
What is the pH of lemon juice/vinegar?
2 acidic
60
What is the pH of bleach?
13 basic
61
What are the 3 main parts of a cell?
A: Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm:
- Cytosol
- Organelles (except nucleus)
Nucleus:
- Chromosomes
- Genes
62
What is the center of organization and cell division?
Centrosomes
63
What is cilia?
numerous, short, hairlike projections. Moves material across surface of cell. (help keep lungs clean)
64
What is flagella?
longer, move an entire cell (located on the Sperm Cell)
65
What is the cell's protein factory and cell growth?
Ribosomes makes proteins by translating messenger RNA (mRNA) into amino acid chains
- found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
66
What is the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum?
Synthesizes and processes protein
- Has ribosomes which make it look "rough"
67
What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Produces lipids, aids in detoxification, and calcium storage
- Has no ribosomes
68
What part of the cell is like the post office--processes and delivers proteins and lipids?
Golgi Complex
- delivers to plasma membrane, lysosomes, and secretory vesicles
69
What is the function of lysosomes?
A: Break down waste and old cell parts with enzymes
- clean up crew
70
What are Perioxomes?
uses oxygen to
breakdown and organize substances
71
What are proteasomes:
Gets rid of unneeded, damaged, faulty proteins
72
What produces ATP in the cell?
A: Mitochondria
-helps with apoptosis (cell death)
73
What is the control center and storage for DNA of the cell?
Nucleus
- muscle cells are multinucleated
74
What are chromatins?
is the DNA-protein complex that packages and regulates DNA in the nucleus
75
What part of the cell is responsible for manufacturing RNA for ribosomes?
Nucleous
76
What is the double membrane that protects the nucleus?
Nuclear envelope
77
78
What are the tiny passageway for proteins, RNA, and solutes to move b/w the nucleus and cytoplasm?
nuclear pores
79
What are the stages of mitosis in order?
A: Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
## Footnote
Prophase- chromoses appear
Prometaphase- preparation for seperation
Metaphase- line up in the middle
Anaphase- they pull apart
Telophase- two new cells
80
What type of junction prevents leakage?
A: Tight junction
Common on epithelial cells
● Stomach, bladder, intestines
81
What type of junction acts as a passageway?
Gap junctions
- chemicals to move between
cells
- Eyes, GI tract, uterus, heart
82
What junction links epithelial cells to surrounding structures?
Desmosomes
83
What junction connects cells to basement membrane?
Hemidesmosomes
84
What junction encircles and anchors cells together?
Adherens junctions - “Adhesion Belt”
Resists separation during contraction (ex: as food moves through digestive system -intestines)
85
What tissue is highly vascular?
Connective tissue except tendons and cartilage
86
Which tissue type is avascular and functions to protect absorb, or secrete?
A: Epithelial tissue
- Has an apical surface (top of epithelial cell that faces external environment or lumen of organ) and Basal surface (bottom of epithelial cell, touches basement membrane
87
Which epithelium is found in alveoli of the lungs and kidneys?
Simple squamous - single layer of cells attached to basement membrane
Functions: diffusion, excretion, and absorption
88
What are the characteristics of simple cuboidal epithelium?
single layer, cube shaped cells resting on basement membrane
■ Functions: excretion and absorption
■ Locations: Kidney, thyroid, glands
89
Which epithelium has elongated nuclei and flattened cells connecting to the basement membrane?
Simple columnar
Functions: secretions and absorption
■ Locations: GI tract (stomach, intestines)
90
Which epithelium can be keratinized and non-keratinized?
Stratified squamous
-2 layers of cells, deeper layers are cuboidal shap, superficial squamous
- Basal cells replicate and shift from deep to surface
- Functions: protection from abrasion and desiccation (drying out)
● Locations: Skin (keratinized), esophagus (non-keratin)
91
Wich epithelium is found in the sweat gland and mammary glands?
Stratified cuboidal
Funtion: secretion
92
Which epithelium is located in pharynx, epiglottis, salivary glands?
Stratified columnar
93
Which epithelium is found in the respiratory tracts?
Pseudostratified columnar - Appears stratified but all cells are touching the basement membrane making it one layer. Has cilia
■ Functions: secretion and transport of mucus
94
Which epithelium is found in the bladder and ureters?
Transitional - apical (top layer) cells change shape from cuboidal to squamous when stretched. Can tolerate stretch and recoil
95
What are the stratum layers of epidermis?
Corneum, lucidum, granulosoum, spinosum, basale
96
Stratum Corneum
Superficial skin layer
- Contains 25-30 layers; dead keratinocytes and continuously sheds
- Barrier to light, heat, water, chemical, bacteria (internal/external
environment)
■ Lamellar granules found in this layer - make skin waterproof
97
What layer of epidermis is only in thick skin?
A: Stratum lucidum (palms, soles, digits)
- 3-5 layers of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes
98
Which layer of stratum does the nucleus begin to breakdown (aka apoptosis)?
Stratum granulosum
- 3-5 layers of keratinocytes
- Due to epithelial cells moves
further from blood supply, and cells begin to breakdown
## Footnote
"granules"
99
Which stratum layer provides strength and flexibility to skin?
Stratum psinosum
- 8-10 layers of healthy keratinocytes (nucleus)
- intraepidermal macrophages (langerhan's cells) are found in this layer.
● Intraepidermal macrophages engulf bacteria, foreign particles, damaged and cancer cells that occur in this layer
100
Which stratum layer is the production site of melanocytes?
Stratum basale
- Basal cells (stem cell (simple cuboidal layer); single layer of stem cells that can regenerate and develop into keratinocytes of epidermis
- attaches it to the basal lamina
■ Tactile epithelial cells (Merkel cells) found in layer. Merkel cells are sensory receptors which gives you 'sense of touch'. abundant on soles and
palms.
- Deepest layer
101
What are characteristics of thick skin?
A: 5 layers, no hair, found on palms/soles, has no sebacous glands but has sweat glands
102
What are characteristics of thin skin?
4 layers, hairy, covers majority of body, Has sebaceous, sweat
glands and hair follicles
103
What is the shaft of a long bone called?
A: Diaphysis, made of compact bone
104
What is the proximal and distal ends of long bones called?
Epiphysis, spongy bone
105
What is the area between diaphysis and epiphysis?
Metaphyses
- Site of epiphyseal plate (growth plate) - responsible for bone growth, rapid dividing chondroblasts
106
What is the connective tissue that absorbs shock and decreases friction of long bones?
Hyaline cartilage (articular cartilage) located at the end of long bones
107
What is the periosteum?
Dense irregular connective tissue that wraps around diaphysis,
nourishes and helps with fracture repair. Provides a passageway for blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves
108
What is the endosteum?
lining of medullary cavity
109
What is the medullary cavity?
Hollow space within long bones where red marrow in newborn infants, but as we get older yellow
marrow increases
110
Closed fracture:
Skin is unbroken
111
■ Open fracture:
Bones pierce skin
112
■ Transverse fracture:
Fracture breaks across bone
113
■ Spiral Fracture:
Oblique fracture often caused by twisting
114
■ Comminuted fracture:
Multiple fractures resulting in many small pieces. Often requires surgical fixation.
115
■ Impacted fracture:
One part driven into the other by compressive force
116
■ Greenstick fracture:
Partial fracture where only one side of bone is broken, only
happens in children. Occurs when the bone is still developing and bendy
117
■ Oblique fracture:
fracture is diagonal to long axis
118
■ FOOSH injuries:
fall on outstretched hand
119
■ Colles fracture:
distal radius fracture; falling on ventral part of hand (wrist extension)
120
■ Smith fracture:
distal radius fracture; falling on dorsal part of hand (wrist flexion)
121
Salter Harris fractures -
fracture involving the growth plate (epiphyseal plate)
■ Type II most common - fracture cuts through most of the growth plate and the metaphysis, breaks at an angle from rotation or twisting. Common in children age 10+
122
Q: What cells build new bone?
A: Osteoblasts
123
What cells repair and produce new bone?
osteogenic cells, stem cells
124
What cells maintain bone health (matrix)?
Osteocytes
125
What cells break down bone matrix?
osteoclasts
- important for calcium homeostasis
126
Long bones -
long diaphysis, grow in length/diameter, give us our height, found in arms, legs and fingers.
■ Femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, radius, ulna
127
Short bones -
box-like, short and stout bones
■ Carpal, tarsus
128
Flat bones -
thin layer of spongy bone sandwiched between 2 layers of compact bone
■ Skull bones, ribs, sternum, scapular, shoulder blade
129
Irregular bones -
complex shapes, neither long or short
■ Vertebrae
130
Sesamoid bones -
sesame shaped bones, develops within a tendon
■ Patella
131
Sutural (wormian) bones -
typically develop along the connections between the
flat bones of the skull. Not all people have it
132
Axial skeleton
80 bones
- Protects spinal cord, brain and visceral organs
133
Cranial bones (8):
Frontal bone
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
134
Facial bones (14):
Nasal bones
Maxillae
Zygomatic bones
Mandible
Lacrimal bones
Palatine bones
Inferior nasal conchae
Vomer
135
Middle ear bones
Malleus, incus, stapes
136
# Axial skeleton
Hyoid bone
A U-shaped bone in the neck that supports the tongue and is not directly attached to other
bones
137
Spinal column
Cervical vertabrae (7)
Thoracic vertabrae (12)
Lumbar vertabrae (5)
Sacrum - Fused 5 sacral vertebrae,
Fuses between 13-30 yr old
Coccyx - fused 4 small coccygeal vertebrae
138
Thoracic cage 1
Manubrium
Sternum body
Xiphoid process
139
Thoracic cage 2
24 ribs
True ribs 1-7
False ribs 8-12
Floating ribs 11-12
140
Scoliosis:
lateral curvature
141
○ Kyphosis:
Excessive thoracic curvature
142
○ Lordosis:
Excessive Lumbar Curvature
143
Appendicular skeleton
126 bones
comprises the upper and lower extremities
144
Pectoral Girdle
connects the arms to the upper portion of the axial skeleton
- Clavicle and scapula
145
# Appendicular skeleton
Upper limbs
Humeri, ulnae, radii, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
146
# Appendicular skeleton
Pelvic Girdle
Connects spinal column to lower limbs
- Hip bones - coxal bones
147
# Appendicular skeleton
Lower Limbs
Femor, patallae, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
148
Carpal Bones
8 bones per wrist × 2 wrists = 16 bones
- (Lateral to Medial; Proximal → Distal): Mnemonic: "Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can’t Handle"
- Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform, Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate
149
Tarsal Bones
7 bones per ankle × 2 ankles = 14 bones
Mnemonic: "Tiger Cubs Need MILC"
- Talus, Calcaneus, Navicular, Medial cuneiform, Lateral cuneiform, Cuboid
150
Difference between carpal vs. tarsal bones
- Carpal bones have 8, tarsal have 7
- Carpal bones for fine motor movement, tarsal weight bearing, stability
151
Female vs male pelvis
Male Pelvis - thicker and heavier, heart shaped, longer and narrower, subpubic angle is less than 70º, pelvic outlet is smaller
○ Female Pelvis - lighter, thinner, round/oval shaped, shorter and wider, subpubic angle is greater than 90º, pelvic outlet is rounded and larger
152
Pivot Joint
Uniaxial joint, rotational movement
- Atlantoaxial joint (C1-C2 vertebrae articulation), proximal radioulnar joint
153
Hinge Joint
Allows flexion and extension (uniaxial)
- Elbow, knee, ankle, fingers, toes
154
Condyloid Joint
Allows movement in two planes (biaxial): flexion/extension and abduction/adduction
- wrist, metacarpophalangeal joints
155
Saddle Joint
Biaxial like condyloid, but with greater range
- Thumb, sternoclavicular joint
156
Plane (gliding) joint
Flat surfaces that slide over one another (multiaxial)
- Intertarsal joints, articular facets of vertebrae
157
Ball-and-Socket Joint
Multiaxial: movement in all directions
- Shoulder and hip
158
# Movements of Joints
Gliding
Flat bone surfaces slide past each other
159
# Movements of Joints
Angular movements
Flexion, extension, hyperextension, adduction, adduction, curcumduction
160
# Movements of Joints
Rotation
Rotation of a bone around its own asix -- moves toward or away midline
161
# Movements of Joints
Special Movements
only occurs in a few joints – supination, pronation, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, inversion, eversion, protraction, retraction elevation,
depression and opposition
162
Skeletal Muscle characteristics
Location: Skeletal, sphincter, urethra, anus
■ Function: Moves bones, produces heat
■ Appearance: multinucleated; striated
■ Voluntary
163
Cardiac muscle characteristics
Location: Heart
■ Function: pump blood
■ Appearance: striated; one nucleus; intercalated disc (specialized junctions
to connect cardiac muscle)
■ Involuntary
164
Smooth (visceral) muscle characteristics
Location: walls of hollow internal organs; vessels, airways, stomach,
bladder, uterus
■ Function: moves materials through organs
■ Appearance: smooth; one nucleus
■ Involuntary
165
Which protein generates force during muscle contraction?
contractile
(myosin and actin)
166
Which protein regulates when muscles contract or relax?
regulatory
(troponin and tropomyosin)
167
Which proteins keep myofibrils organized, transmit force and maintain integrity?
Structural
(titin, nebulin, alpha-actin, myomesin, dystropohn)
168
Isotonic contractions
muscle length changes
■ Eccentric: muscle elongates, ex: downward motion of bicep curl
■ Concentric: muscle contraction
169
Isometric contractions
muscle length does not change. Ex: holding weight at 90º
during bicep curl
170
What muscle fiber is best for long duration, low intensity?
Slow oxidative
- endurance exercises
- Angiogenesis: formation of capillary networks around the fiber)
- This increases the oxygen supply and waste removal to/from cells
## Footnote
Examples: Cross Country, marathon runner
171
What muscle fiber is best for moderate-duration activities?
Fast oxydative glycolytic
- Also known as intermediate fibers (have characteristics between fast fibers and slow fibers)
- produce ATP aerobically. (high amounts of mitochondria, and do not fatigue quickly)
## Footnote
Soccer player
172
What muscle fiber fatigues quickly?
Fast glycolytic
-used to produce rapid, forceful contractions to make quick, powerful movements
## Footnote
shot putter
173
Prime mover or agonist
principal muscle involved
174
Antagonist
muscle with opposite action of agonist; relaxes or stretches when prime mover contracts to produce movement
175
Synergist
muscle(s) producing similar motion to or in conjunction with agonist
176
Occipitofrontalis muscle
moves up the scalp and eyebrows
177
What are the kissing muscles?
Orbicularis Oris: circles the mouth
178
What muscle helps with blinking?
Orbicularis oculi
179
What muscles help us smile?
Zygomaticus major and minor
180
What muscle allows us to whistle, blow and suck?
buccinator
181
What muscle tenses the skin of our neck and depresses the lower lip?
Platysma
182
What muscle lowers the eyebrows?
Corrugator supercilii
183
How many extrinsic eye muscles are there?
6
Superior/inferior rectus, lateral/medial rectus, superior/inferior oblique
184
What muscle allows our eye to look up?
superior rectus
185
What muscle allows our eye to look down?
Inferior rectus
186
What muscle allows our eye to look outward?
Lateral rectus
187
What muscle allows our eye to look inward?
medial rectus
188
What muscle allows our eye to look both down and laterally?
superior oblique
189
What muscle allows our eye to look both up and laterally?
Inferior oblique
190
What is the main muscle responsible for chewing?
Massester
191
What muscles elevate hyoid, floor of mouth and larynx?
Suprahyoid muscles (superior to hyoid)
* digastric
* stylohyoid
* mylohyoid
* Geniohyoid
192
What muscles depress hyoid?
Infrahyoid muscles
* omohyoid
* sternohyoid
* thyrohyoid
193
# neck muscle
Sternocleidomastoid (SCM)
lateral flexion to same side, rotation to the opposite side, or flexion when both sides contract
194
# neck muscle
Scalenes
flexion when both sides contract
195
Splenius (capitis and cervicis)
inserts into head, originates from midline/spine, extends/laterally flex, and rotates head
196
Which neck muscles inserts into the head and originates from the midline of the spine?
Splenius
197
What are the four pairs of abdomen muscles?
External obliques: most superficial
Internal obliques
Transversus abdominis: deepest
Rectus abdominis
198
What muscles are contracting during inhalation?
Diaphragm, external, interal and innermost intercostals
199
What are the three erector spinae muscles?
Spinalis, longissimus, iliocostalis
200
Which muscles make up the pelvic floor?
Levator ani (large muscles made of 2 muscles)
- Pubococcygeus
- Iliococcygeus
201
What movement is the serratus anterior responsible for?
Protraction; extension
202
What are the Rotator Cuff Muscles?
tendons of the subscapularis, supraspinatus*, infraspinatus, and teres minor muscles
203
Which rotator cuff is most common torn?
Supraspinatus
204
Which muscles move the humerus?
Pectoralis major and Lattisimus dorsi
205
What muscles assist with Elbow Flexion
Biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis
206
What muscles assist with elbow extension?
triceps brachii
207
What muscle assists with Forearm Pronation?
pronator teres
208
What muscles assist with forearm supination?
supinator and biceps brachii
209
Which muscles attach to the medial epicondyle of humerus?
Flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor digitorum superficialis, and pronator teres
210
Which structure holds the tendons in place as they cross the wrist?
Flexor retinaculum
211
What motion is the gluteus maximus responsible for?
hip extension
212
What muscles make up the hamstrings?
biceps femoris
semitendinosus
semimembranosus
These muscles are responsible for hip extension and knee flexion.
Common origin: ischial tuberosity
213
What muscles make up the quadriceps?
Rectus femoris
Vastus lateralis
Vastus medialis
Vastus intermedius
214
What action does the sartorius do?
Allows you to cross one leg on top of the other, hip flexion, abduction, and lateral rotation at the hip in addition to flexion at the knee
215
What movement is the Anterior Tibialis responsible for?
produces dorsiflexion and inversion
216
What movement is the Medial compartment of thigh responsible for?
Hip adduction
adductor longus
adductor brevis
adductor magnus
pectineus
gracilis
217
What muscle/s are in the posterior compartment of the lower leg?
responsible for hip extension and knee flexion and Anterior responsible for knee extension and stabilization
218
What muscles plantarflexion and evert the ankle
fibularis longus (peroneus longus)
fibularis brevis (peroneus brevis)
219
What lower leg muscle allows dorsiflexion and extension of the big toe?
extensor hallucis longus: extend big toe and dorsiflexion
