final exam Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 7 key characteristics of life?
A
Grows Reproduces Responds to its environment Maintains homeostasis Evolves Has DNA Composed of cells
2
Q
All life came from a single source (or a small number of sources)
A
Unity of Life
3
Q
Organsims adapted to their environments over many generations
A
Diversity of Life
4
Q
What are the hierarchal levels of life?
A
Atoms>molecules>organelles>cells>tissues>organs>organ systems>organsims
5
Q
- All living things are made up of cells
- The cell is a structural and functional unit of all living things
- All cells come pre-existing cells
- Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division
- All energy flow of life occurs within cells
- All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
A
Cell Theory
6
Q
Has a nucleus, large cells or multicellular, DNA in strands
A
Eukaryotic Cells
7
Q
No nucleus, small cells, circular DNA
A
Prokaryotic Cells
8
Q
One organism
A
Individual
9
Q
All the living organisms of one species in a particular area
A
Population
10
Q
All species in an area (plants, animals, decomposers…)
A
Community
11
Q
Living and non-living components of an area
A
Ecosystem
12
Q
All life on Earth in all the places that life exists
A
Biosphere
13
Q
New properties arise at each level of organization
A
Emergent Properties
14
Q
The water molecules stick to each other, water has surface tension
A
Cohesion
15
Q
Water sticks to certain other materials, wall of plant veins
A
Adhesion
16
Q
Water loving
A
Hydrophilic
17
Q
Water hating
A
Hydrophobic
18
Q
What are the 4 main classes of organic molecules?
A
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
19
Q
What is the monomer of carbohydrates?
A
monosaccharide
20
Q
What is the polymer(s) of carbohydrates?
A
Disaccharides (2), polysaccharides (3+)
21
Q
What is the monomer of lipids
A
1 glycerol+3 fatty acids
22
Q
What is the polymer of lipids?
A
Triglyceride
23
Q
What is the monomer of proteins?
A
Amino acid
24
Q
What is the polymer of proteins?
A
Peptides
25
What is the monomer of nucleic acids?
Nucleotide
26
What is the polymer of nucleic acids?
Nucleic Acid
27
Created by removing water and getting a larger polymer
Dehydration Synthesis
28
Break with water
Hydrolysis
29
The order of amino acids
Primary Structure
30
Stabilized by hydrogen bonds
Secondary Structure
31
The overall shape of a protein molecule
Tertiary Structure
32
Occurs in proteins formed of 2 or more peptide subunits
Quaternary Structure
33
The total amount of energy in the universe is constant
- Energy cannot be created or destroyed
- Energy can only be changed from one form to another
- Plants convert light energy to chemical energy via photosynthesis
First Law of Thermodynamics
34
The entropy (degree of disorder) is always increasing
- Energy is lost when it is transformed from one form to another
- Energy is generally lost as heat
Second Law of Thermodynamics
35
Releases energy, products low in potential energy
Exergonic Reactions
36
Absorbs energy, products rich in potential energy
Endergonic Reactions
37
What is the relationship between enzymes and activation energy?
Enzymes lower activation energy
38
What denatures an enzyme?
Changes in pH, temperature, and salt concentration
39
Is an enzyme used up during a reaction?
No
40
- Showed that killed pathogenic bacteria could transfer virulence to non-pathogenic bacteria
- This newly acquired trait of pathogenicity was inherited by all of the descendants of the transformed bacteria
Frederick Griffith
41
Identified the transforming substance as DNA
Avery, McCarty, MacLoed
42
Concluded that the DNA injected by the phage must be the molecule carrying the genetic information that makes the cells produce new viral DNA and proteins
-Provided powerful evidence that nucleic acids, rather than proteins, is the hereditary information
Hershey and Chase
43
Chargaff's Rules, A=T, C=G
Erwin Chargaff
44
- Made an X-ray diffraction photograph of DNA which showed the helical structure
- Concluded that the sugar-phosphate backbone was on the outside
- Died in 1958
Rosalind Franklin
45
- Determined base pairing
- Determined the two strands of DNA were involved--double helix
- Determined the strands ran in opposite directions--antiparallel
Watson and Crick
46
Breaks hydrogen bonds between complementary pairs (unzips DNA)
Helicase
47
Adds a RNA primer to initiate replication
Primase
48
Adds DNA molecules to pre-existing chain from 5' to 3' on the growing chain
DNA Polymerase
49
Adds nucleotides after RNA primer
DNA Polymerase III
50
Removes RNA primer
DNA Polymerase I
51
Joins Okazaki fragments
DNA Ligase
52
Helps with the untwisting of DNA
Topoisomerase
53
Binds to the single strands to keep them from rejoining
Single Strand Binding Protein
54
The new complementary DNA strand synthesized continuously along the template strand
Leading Strand
55
A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments
Lagging Strand
56
Pries two strands of DNA apart and joins together RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA template
RNA polymerase
57
DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches
Promoter
58
DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches
Terminator
59
What is produced from transcription?
mRNA
60
What is the 'one gene-one enzyme' hypothesis?
Each mutated gene must normally dictate the production of one enzyme
61
How does transcription vary in prokaryotes vs eukaryotes?
Prokaryotes produce mRNA, eukaryotes produce pre-mRNA
62
mRNA removed before transcription
Introns
63
Remaining mRNA to be used during translation
Exons
64
The process of remaining introns in the nucleus
RNA Splicing
65
Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins
- Composed of snRNA and proteins
- Recognize introns
snRNPs
66
A ribozyme, a catalyst that is a RNA molecule, not an enzyme
snRNA
67
Consists of snRNP subunits
| -Bind to pre-mRNA at multiple sites along the intron, snip the intron, and join the exons
Spliceosome
68
Messenger RNA, carries the codon from the DNA to the ribosome
mRNA
69
Transfer RNA, brings amino acids to the ribosome
tRNA
70
Ribosomal RNA, components of ribosomes, most abundant RNA
rRNA
71
Structural components of spliceosomes which remove introns from eukaryotic pre-mRNAs
snRNA
72
Joins an amino acid to tRNA
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
73
The messenger RNA nucleotide triplets
Codon
74
Base pairs with the complementary codon on the mRNA
Anticodon
75
Signals the start of translation
Start Codon
76
Signals the end of translation
Stop Codon
77
tRNA with the polypeptide moved to the p-site, empty tRNA moved to the e-site and released
Translocation
78
Contains a mRNA binding site
Small Subunit
79
Lines up the tRNA
Large Subunit
80
Holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain
P-site
81
Holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid
A-site
82
Discharges tRNA
E-site
83
Change in single nucleotide
Point Mutation
84
Point mutation in the third base pair of a codon that does not change the amino acid
Silent Mutation
85
Point mutation that does change the amino acid
Missense Mutation
86
Point mutation that replaces an amino acid with a stop codon
Nonsense Mutation
87
Additions of one or more nucleotides in a gene
Insertion
88
Deleting of one or more nucleotides in a gene
Deletion
89
Insertions or deletions of one or two nucleotides resulting in a shift in the reading frame
Frameshift Mutation
90
Physical or chemical agents that cause mutations
| -e.g. UV light, X-rays, most carcinogens
Mutagen
91
Transcription is usually turned on, but can be inhibited
- Repressor normally unbound
- Corepressor needed in order for the repressor to bind to the operator
Repressible Operon
92
Transcription is off, but can be stimulated
- Repressor normally bound to the operator
- Inducer required to inactivate the repressor so transcription can occur
Inducible Operon
93
The switch on the DNA that allows transcription to occur
Operator
94
Binds to the operator and blocks the attachment to the promoter
Repressor
95
Codes for repressors
Regulatory Gene
96
Binds to a repressor protein and changes the protein's shape, allowing it to bind to the operator and switch an operon off
Corepressor
97
Binds to a repressor and changes the repressor's shape so it cannot bind to an operator
Inducer
98
A protein that binds to other proteins to mark them for degradation
Ubiquitin
99
Recognize the ubiquitin-tagged proteins and break them down
Proteasomes
100
- Makes copies of DNA
- Can copy the DNA when the original DNA source is limited or impure
- Selective of specific sequences
- After 30 cycles, a billion copies of target sequence are present
PCR
101
The DNA is inserted into its plasmid
Bacteria Cloning
102
Differentiated cells can be grown into complete new plants
Plant Cloning
103
Use mammary cells as DNA source
Animal Cloning
104
Using fluorescent dyes to see where genes are expressed
In situ hybridization
105
Examines a large number of genes from a small tissue sample
- Examines mRNA
- Detects presence and intensity
- Screens 1000s of genes at a time
- Requires prior knowledge of the genome
Microarrays
106
Unspecialized cells that can reproduce itself indefinitely and also differentiate into specialized cells
Stem Cells
107
Introducing genes into an afflicted individual for therapeutic purposes
Gene Therapy
108
The study of whole sets of genes and their interactions
Genomics
109
Why do viruses 'lead a borrowed life'?
They need a host cell to replicate
110
Culminates in the death of the host cell and release of new viruses
Lytic Cycle
111
Viral DNA is replicated without killing the host cell
Lysogenic Cycle
112
What is the advantage of a membrane coat?
Protection
113
What causes a virus to become pandemic?
A virus spread to more than 1 continent
114
How can we prevent viral diseases?
Vaccines
115
Regulates flow of molecules into and out of the cell
Cell Membrane
116
- Contains genetic material (DNA)
| - Components: nucleolus, nuclear membrane, chromatin
Nucleus
117
Protein synthesis
Ribosomes
118
Covered with ribosomes, functions in protein synthesis
Rough ER
119
Functions in lipid metabolism, synthesis of cholesterol and steroid hormones
Smooth ER
120
- Modifies proteins and lipids received from the ER
- Sorts proteins and lipids for final destinations
- Packages and exports proteins and lipids in vesicles
- In plants, it manufactures polysaccharides
Golgi Apparatus
121
Controlled intracellular digestion of macromolecules, has a pH of 5, only in animal cells
Lysosomes
122
A membrane sac in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell
Vesicle
123
Pumps excess water from cell, only in plant cells
Vacuole
124
Energy factories, site of cellular respiration, has its own DNA
Mitochondria
125
In plants, where photosynthesis occurs
Chloroplasts
126
Produces hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct, breaks down fatty acids, alcohol
Peroxisomes
127
Serves a variety of mechanical, transport, and signaling functioning
Cytoskeleton
128
```
Composed of cellulose, only in plants
Functions:
1. Protects the cell
2. Provides shape
3. Prevents uptake of excess water
4. Holds the plant up against gravity
```
Cell Wall
129
What cell organelles are unique to plants?
Cell wall, vacuole, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata
130
What cell organelles are unique to animals?
Lysosomes, centrioles, cell junctions
131
Evolutionary origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts
Endosymbiont Theory
132
What organs are in the endomembrane system (6)?
ER, nuclear envelope, golgi, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles
133
Proteins may move laterally, they don't flip flop
| -If correct, proteins from two different cells will mix
Fluid Mosaic Model
134
What are the functions of the cell membrane? (6)
```
Transport
Enzyme activity
Signal transduction
Cell-cell recognition
Intercellular joining
Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
```
135
The diffusion of free water across a selectively permeable membrane
Osmosis
136
Movement of molecules down their concentration gradient
Diffusion
137
The movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration
Active Transport
138
Proteins that carry substances from one side of the membrane to the other
Carrier Protein
139
Facilitate the transport of substances across a cell membrane
Channel Protein
140
Higher solute concentration, water flows out of the cell and it shrinks, then will shrivel
Hypertonic
141
Lower solute concentration, water flows into the cell and it expands, cell will swell and may burst
Hypotonic
142
Equal tonicity
Isotonic
143
One unit of condensed chromatin
Chromatid
144
A cellular structure that has 1 DNA molecule and associated proteins
Chromsome
145
Pair of separate DNA strands that carry genes for the same traits
Homologous pair
146
Two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached at the centromere end
Sister Chromatid
147
The region on each sister chromatid where it is most closely attached to the other chromatid
Centromere
148
Cell has homologous pair of chromosomes
Diploid
149
Cell has single chromatids or sister chromatids
Haploid
150
Microtubule organizing center
Centrosome
151
A cable composed of actin proteins in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
Microfilament
152
Composed of tubulin proteins
Microtubule
153
Proteins associated with DNA at the centromere
Kinetochore
154
Normal cell operations and cell growth
G1
155
Preparation for cell division
G2
156
Replication of DNA
S
157
Chromatin condense becoming sister chromatids, nucleus dissolves
Prophase
158
Sister chromatids line up in the middle of the cell
Metaphase
159
Sister chromatids separate
Anaphase
160
The cells start to separate (in animals, a cleavage furrow forms)
Telophase
161
How does cell division proceed in prokaryotes?
Binary fission
162
Duplicate homologous chromosomes pair and exchange segments
Prophase I
163
Homologous pairs line up
Metaphase I
164
Homologous pairs separate
Anaphase I
165
Two haploid cells form, each chromosome still has 2 sister chromatids
Telophase I
166
A spindle apparatus forms
Prophase II
167
Sister chromatids line up
Metaphase II
168
Sister chromatids separate, the chromatids move toward opposite poles as individual chromosomes
Anaphase II
169
Nuclei form, the chromosomes begin decondensing and cytokinesis occurs
Telophase II
170
Always expressed, capital letter
Dominant Trait
171
Only expressed when the dominant is not present, lowercase letter
Recessive Trait
172
Only on the X chromosome
X-Linked Traits
173
Both traits expressed
Co-Dominance
174
Blending of traits
Incomplete Dominance
175
An allele that is lethal in the homozygous condition
Homozygous Lethal
176
How do cells communicate when they are close in contact with each other?
Cell junctions, cell-cell recognition
177
How do cells communicate over short distances?
Paracine signaling, synaptic signaling
178
A secreting cell acts on nearby target cells by discharging molecules of a local regulator into the extracellular fluid
Paracine Signaling
179
A gap between adjacent nerve cells
Synapse
180
How do cells communicate over long distances?
Relies on the bloodstream to transport molecules
181
What are the 3 stages of cell signaling?
Reception, transduction, response
182
A signal molecule binds to a receptor protein
Reception
183
Receptor protein is changed
Transduction
184
Specific response could be activating an enzyme, rearranging the cytoskeleton, or activating specific genes in the nucleus
Response
185
```
Glucose is oxidized into pyruvate
-Occurs in all cells
-Anaerobic process
-Occurs in the cytosol
Net reaction:
-Glucose--> 2 pyruvate
-Yields 2 ATP+ 2 NADH
```
Glycolysis
186
- Pyruvate leaves the cytosol and enters the mitochondria matrix via active transport
- Pyruvate is converted into Acetyl CoA
- Net reaction:
* 2 pyruvate +2 CoA--> 2 Acetyl CoA+2 CO2
* Yields 2 NADH
Pyruvate Oxidation
187
Produces virtually all the carbon dioxide resulting from cellular respiration
Net reaction:
-2 Acetyl CoA--> 4 carbon dioxide
-Yields 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2
Citric Acid Cycle
188
NADH and FADH2 release their electrons and H+
-Electrons power the pumping of H+ against a concentration gradient
-H+ pumped from the matrix to the intermediate space
Net reaction: H+ gradient
Electron Transport Chain
189
H+ concentration gradient used to make ATP
| -Yields 26-28 ATP total
Chemiosmosis
190
Transmembrane enzyme that makes ATP
ATP synthase
191
What is the relationship between the Laws of Thermodynamics and photosynthesis?
Energy flows but nutrients cycle-- energy is not created nor destroyed, just transformed
192
What organisms photosynthesize?
Plants
193
What is the equation for photosynthesis?
energy+6CO2+6H20-->C6H12O6+6O2
194
The O in carbon dioxide, does it become the O in glucose or O2?
Both
195
The O in H2O, does it become the ) in glucose or O2?
O2
196
- Used: water
- Produced: O2, ATP, NADPH
- Location: thylakoid
Light Dependent Reactions
197
- Used: CO2, ATP, NADPH
- Produced: glucose
- Location: stroma
Light Independent Reactions
198
```
3 stages:
1. Carbon fixation
2. Reduction
3. Regeneration of CO2 acceptor
Net reaction:
-3 CO2-->3 GCP
-Uses ATP and 6 NADPH
```
Calvin Cycle
