Flashcards in Final Exam Deck (78):
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Synarthrosis
Immovable joint
Eg skull sutures
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Diarthrosis
Freely movable joint
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Sprain
Ligaments are stretched, torn, slow to heal due to lack of blood supply
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Muscle tissue
Contractile( can shorten)
Extensible (can be stretched)
Elastic ( can recoil to original length)
Functions: movement
Posture
Stabilises joints
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Skeletal muscle
Striated, Voluntary, rapid but tires
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Cardiac muscle
Striated, involuntary, with branched fibres, and intercalated disks. Cardiac muscle is only found within the heart
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Smooth muscle
Doesn't have striations or bands, is involuntary, with cylindrical fibres, which undergo continuous slow contractions
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Origin
Less movable bone
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Instertion
More movable bone
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Contraction
Actin and myosin slide past each other
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Skeletal muscle contraction cycle
1. Ca exposes binding site
2. Myosin cross bridge attaches to actin
3. Powerstroke, slide past
4. Myosin cross bridge detached due to ATP
5. Myosin head "cocked" by ATP
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Depolarisation
Reduction
Membrane is less negative, -79 to -40 mv
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Hypetpolarisation
Increase
Membrane is more negative, -70 to -80 mv
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Action potential
Axon generates it by opening and closing gates for ions. Allowing Na and K to move through the membrane, changing its charge
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Left brain
Controls language, logic and maths
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Right side of brain
Controls intuition, emotion, creative
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Thalamus
Sorts/ edits sensory information
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Hypothalamus
Connects directly to pituitary. Homeostasis and endocrine control.
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Midbrain
Connections cerebrum/ cerebellum
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Pons
A relay between cerebellum and motor cortex, contains the respiratory centre
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Medulla oblongata
Vital control areas for key systems such as cardiovascular centre, respiratory centre
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Cerebellum
Influenced the pattern and timing of muscle contraction via subconscious to make smooth fluid movements
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Central nervous system
Comprises brain and spinal cord
It's functions is integration and command centre
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Cerebral hemisphere
Form 83% of the brain mass: they are made of gyri (folds) and sulci (grooves)
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The endocrine system
Uses glands that secrete directly to interstitial fluid or blood stream
Is a control or regulatory system
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What endocrine system can regulate
-cellular metabolism and energy balance
- body fluid and ion(electrolyte) concentrations and nutrients
-cellular and body growth and development
-immune system and body defense
-reproduction
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Where to find endocrine glands
Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal
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Where to find endocrine tissues
Pancreas, gonads and hypothalamus
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Hormones
Are chemical messengers
Either amino-acid based hormones(need second messengers to get through cell membrane) or steroids ( diffuse through cell membrane)lipid
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Hormones are very specific
They are targeted to bind to specific protein receptors
If the cell hasn't got a receptor, no matter how much hormone is present, no action will occur.
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Endocrine glands can be stimulated in three ways
Humoral- by changes in blood levels of a nutrient
Neural- by nerve fibres directly
Hormonal- by other hormones to stimulate release of hormone
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Right side pump of heart
Venous blood from body and heart to the lungs ( deoxygenated)
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Left side pump of heart
Oxygenated blood from lungs to body and heart
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Left atrium
Blood from lungs via pulmonary veins
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Right atrium
Blood from body via superior and inferior vena cavae
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Left ventricle
Pumps blood to body via the aorta
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Right ventricle
Pumps blood to the lungs via the pulmonary trunk
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Valves
Guide blood flow through the heart in one direction
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Atrioventricular valves
Control blood from the atrium into the ventricle for each side
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Pathway of blood through the heart
Entry: venous blood enters the right atrium ( from vena cavae)
Exit: blood fills the right ventricle and is pumped by the pulmonary trunk to the lungs
Entry: after oxygenation in lung, blood returns to the heart(left atrium) by pulmonary veins.
Exit: left atrium fills the left ventricle the oxygenated blood leaves the heart via the aorta.
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Benefits of aerobic exercise
Improve oxygen delivery and utilisation ( more capillaries, more efficient fibres due to more mitochondria, myoglobin and oxidative enzymes)
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The wall of the stomach contains
Parietal cells which secrete HCI ( 100,00x more acidic than blood)
Chief cells which secrete pepsinogen, to digest protein
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Small intestines
Main role is absorption
Secreted alkaline mucus to neutralise stomach acid
Enzymes complete carbohydrate and protein digestion
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Pancreas
Is two glands in one and secretes digestive enzymes
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Large intestines
Mainly for water absorbtion
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Nutrient rich blood from intestines
Nutrient rich blood is directed directly to the liver for filtering and processing
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Liver
Functions: carb storage and release, protein syntheses and detoxification
Blood from portal vein inflows to liver to deliver nutrients direct from gut
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Nutrient
Chemical substance that provides nourishment for the body (metabolic processes)
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Essential nutrients
Something the body needs but can't make itself
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Metabolism
Biochemical reaction inside cells
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Catabolism
Metabolic reactions inducing substance breakdown
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Anabolism
Metabolic reactions inducing substance build up
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Carbs
Sourced from plants in diet( vegetables, fruit and grain)
Provides glucose and simple sugars for energy and fibre
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Lipids
Source from animal products ( meat, eggs dairy) and oils
Use for absorbing fat soluble vitamins feel for liver and skeletal muscle, energy store
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Protein
Mainly from animal sources but the legumes, nuts and cereals can also provide.
Use for making body tissues and signs, can't synthesise essential amino acids so need to ingest them.
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Vitamins
Most act as co-enzymes which assist enzymes to act as catalysts. A DEK of fat-soluble and B and C are water-soluble.
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Minerals
Calcium phosphorus potassium sulfur sodium chlorine magnesium are needed in moderate amounts.
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What is the importance of maintaining glucose availability for ATP production
Glucose availability is regulated by insulin and glucagon hormones (made in pancreas) as ATP can't be stored
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Body fluid
Controlled by kidneys in combination with hormones and it neural controls
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Intracellular fluid
Inside cells- cytoplasms
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Extracellular fluid
Outside cells- spaces between cells
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B-lymphocytes
Form plasma cells to make antibodies and form memory cells
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Antibodies
Immobilise antigens for destruction
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Macrophages
Phagocytise/ eat foreign materials and "activate" T-lymphocytes
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T-lymphocytes
Manage immune response, some direct attach of infected cells
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Regulatory T-lymphocytes
Turn off immune response ( prevent over response) t
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Phagocytes
Gobble or ear foreign cells/materials
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Antigens
Are chemical (proteins) that are recognised as 'non self'
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External Nonspecific (innate) immunity
Acts irrespective of invading substance
Skin- barrier against weak acids/ based, bacterial enzymes.
Mucous-(lines all cavities that connect to external body surfaces)
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Internal nonspecific (innate) immunity
Phagocytes eat invaders
Kill cells
Inflammation- prevents spread of antigens, destroys pathogens
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Specific (adaptive) defences
Recognises and only acts against specific pathogens or immunological substances
Has memory ( increase responses on reactivation)
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Hypothalamus in male reproductive systems
Secretes GnRH
GnRH stimulates secretion of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary
FSH stimulates testis to increase speed number
LH stimulates leydig cells to make testosterone
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Action potential
1. All gated k+ and Na+ channels closed
2. Depolarisation: Na+ flows in
3. Depolarisation: Na+ channels close, K+ channel open
4. Undershoot ( too many K+ lost)
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Pre central gyrus
Location of primary motor cortex
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Post-central gyrus
Location of the primary sensory cortex
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Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Surrounds brain and permits it to float.
Is made in choroid plexuses and drained by arachnoid villi
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Motor nerve in spine
Ventral/ anterior horn
Grey matter
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