Final Exam Review Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 4 principles of biomedical ethics?
A
- Respect of Autonomy
-Is the patient “autonomous”? Meaning they able to make their own fully informed choices. If the patient isn’t, is their next-of-kin autonomous?
-The patient or next-of-kins decisions must be respected. A person has the right to deny treatment, but not to insist upon it. - Beneficence (ben - IF - ah - sense)
-Healthcare professionals should always act in a way that benefits the patient. This can be physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual.
-What are the benefits of each course of action? Is one “way” clearly more beneficial? - Non-Maleficence (mal - IF - ah - sense)
-Avoid causing harm.
-All treatment involves some harm, even if minimal, but the harm should not outweigh the benefits of treatment. They harm could be physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual.
-What are the harms of each course of action? Is one way clearly more harmful? - Justice
-Patients in similar positions should be treated in a similar manner, or at least fairly. Are there precedents? A precedent is a previous, similar type of case.
-Cost and other resources must be considered, as our health care systems does not have bottomless funds.
2
Q
Evidence Based Medicine (EBM)
A
Practitioners: Doctors,nurses, clinicians, and therapists, etc.
Pros:
-Everything is fit for a certain patients values.
-Safer
Cons:
-May not align with beliefs.
-Time consuming for practioners to stay up to date.
Examples of test and treatments:
-physiotherapy
-complementary medicine
3
Q
CAM
A
Practitioners: Chiropractics, homeopathy, massages, etc.
Pros:
- Less formal.
-More comfortable.
Cons:
-Not a lot of research.
-Not regulated
Examples of test and treatments:
-Acupuncture
-Massage
-Meditation
4
Q
Traditional Medicine
A
Practitioners: Elders
Pros:
-Aligns with most religions (comfortable).
-There is a variety that suits different people.
Cons:
-Not evidence based or regulated.
Examples of test and treatments:
-Herbal medicine
-Homeopathy
-Naturopathy
5
Q
What are the 6 essential nutrients? Which of them are macronutrients and which are micronutrients?
A
Three Macronutrients: provide energy (calories)
-Carbohydrates
-Lipids (fats and oils)
-Proteins
Two Micronutrients:
-Vitamins
-Minerals
Essential for ALL body functions:
-Water
6
Q
Define metabolism and differentiate between catabolic and anabolic reactions.
A
Metabolism: includes all of the reactions of your body breaking down food and energy being released and absorbed
Catabolic Reactions: breaks down nutrients into simpler molecules and release energy. RELEASE energy.
Anabolic: uses energy to build new living tissues. ABSORB energy.
7
Q
What are the 4 characteristics of a healthy diet?
A
- Adequate: providing enough nutrients, fibres, and energy.
- Moderate: the right amount of food.
- Balanced: the right combination of foods to provide proper nutrients.
- Varied: eating many different types of food each day.
8
Q
What 4 categories of info are found on a food label?
A
- Nutrition facts
- Ingredients list
- Nutrition claims
- Health claims
9
Q
Understand how you can rate a food’s “processed” level as A-F.
A
A being not processed at all and F meaning very processed. The in-between letters slowly going up the processed level.
Ex) A- Apple, F- Hotdog
10
Q
What are the main guidelines or tips of the Canada food guide?
A
-Having plenty of fruits and vegetables.
-Eat protein foods.
-Make water your drink of choice.
-Choose whole grain foods.
11
Q
How is a serving size different from a portion?
A
Portion size is the amount of food you choose to put on your plate and actually eat. Serving size is the amount of a specific food or drink that people typically consume or how much is recommended to eat.
12
Q
Describe what nutrient density is and list an example of something that has high nutrient density and something that has low.
A
Nutrient Density: A relative amount of nutrients per calorie of food.
Low ex) frozen foods
High ex) fruits
13
Q
Know the daily recommended % of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
A
Carbs - 45%-65%
Lipids - 20%-35%
Proteins - 10%-35%
14
Q
What is BMI, why isn’t it always an accurate measurement of fitness or health?
A
BMI: Body Mass Index
It isnt always an acurate measurement because:
-it can’t tell the difference between muscle mass and fat
-It doesnt factor in where fat is stored.
-It doesnt factor in your age, metabolism, or acitivity level.
15
Q
List some high carb foods.
A
-Corn
-Banana
-Potato
-Oats
-Wheat
16
Q
Differentiate between simple and complex carbohydrates and monosaccharides and disaccharides.
A
-Simple carbs are found in everything from table sugar to fruit, while complex carbs, or starches, come from whole grains and vegetables like sweet potatoes.
-Monosaccharides are made of one simple sugar subunit (mono = one), while disaccharides are made of two simple sugar subunits (di = two).
17
Q
Glucose (Monosaccharide)
A
-It is the most abundant sugar molecule in our diet and is a good energy source.
-Added sugar
(Look at diagram)
18
Q
Fructose (Monosaccharide)
A
-It is the sweetest natural sugar and is found in fruit, high-fructose corn syrup, vegetables, wheat, etc.
-Natural sugar
(Look at diagram)
19
Q
Galactose (Monosaccharide)
A
-It does not occur alone in foods, it binds with glucose to form lactose.
-Simple sugar
-Added sugar
(Look at diagram)
20
Q
Lactose (Disaccharide)
A
-Glucose + Galactose
- It is commonly found in dairy products and sugar.
21
Q
Maltose (Disaccharide)
A
-Glucose + Glucose
-It is commonly found in starch molecules.
(Look at diagram)
22
Q
Sucrose (Disaccharide)
A
-Glucose + Fructose
-It is commonly found in sugar came, sugar beets, honey, etc.
(Look at diagram)
23
Q
Starch (Polysaccharides)
A
(Look at sketch)
-It is made of glucose.
-Stored in plants.
-It is found in grains, legumes, and tubers.
24
Q
Glycogen (Polysaccharides)
A
(Look at sketch)
-It is made of glucose.
-Stored in liver and muscles of animals.
-It can’t be found in foods.
25
Fiber (Polysaccharides)
(Look at sketch)
-Made of glucose.
-Stored in structure of leaves, stems, and plants.
-Can be found in grains, rice, seeds, etc.
26
Describe the reasons why we need carbohydrates.
-Carbs are an excellent source of energy. They provide 4 kcal (calories) of energy per gram.
-Our brain, red blood cells, and other nervous tissues depend mostly on glucose.
27
What are the benefits of fiber in our diet?
-Can enhance weight loss because we feel full.
-May reduce the risk of colon cancer.
-Reduce risk of diverticulosis.
-May reduce risk of heart disease.
-May lower the risk of type 2 diabetes.
28
Understand how blood glucose levels are regulated - what insulin and glucagon are and how they work.
-If glucose is needed for immediate energy it is released to the bloodstream. If it is not needed for immediate energy is will be stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Between meals the liver is constantly working to convert between glucose and glycogen to maintain proper levels of glucose in the blood.
-When eating meals, our blood levels rise due to insulin (assist glucose) being released by the pancreas.
-When you have not eaten in sometime, blood glucose levels will decrease and the pancreas will release a hormone called glucagon.
Glucagon: Stimulates breakdown of glycogen in liver into glucose for energy. Produces “new “ glucose from amino acids floating in blood and/or tissues such as muscles. Essentially, it eats away at your own body for food.
29
Hypoglycemia
It is when blood glucose levels fall lower than normal levels which can leave someone feeling shaky and hungry.
It can happen to:
-To diabetics who aren’t getting proper treatment.
-To non-diabetics whose pancreas secretes too much insulin after a high carb meal. The body clears glucose out of the blood to quickly.
30
Gluconeogenesis
Without sufficient carbs, the body will make its own glucose by breaking down protein in the blood or tissue. It creates new glucose but also breaks down protein in areas like the muscle, heart, liver, kidneys, etc.
31
glycemic index.
The potential of foods to raise blood glucose levels. Foods with a high glycemic index trigger the hormone insulin causing the blood glucose to rise. Foods with high GI are less healthy than low GI foods for this reason.
32
What is Ketosis? Why is it important? What is Ketoacidosis and why is it dangerous?
-Without proper carbs, the body breaks down stored fat in a process called Ketosis which produces a fuel called Ketones. If it continues for a long period, too many ketones in the blood can lead to ketoacidosis.
-Ketoacidosis interferes harmfully with the body such as high blood acidity, loss of lean body mass, damages body tissues, can lead to a coma and death.
33
What is a unique characteristic of lipids?
They are insoluble in water.
34
What's the difference between a fat and an oil?
-Fats are solid lipids
ex)butter
-Oils are liquid lipids
-olive oil
35
Triglyceride
A molecule consisting of three fatty acids attached to three-carbon glycerol backbone.
(sketch)
36
Saturated Fatty Acids (Triglyceride)
-They have hydrogen atoms surrounding every carbon in the chain.
-They have no double bonds.
-Some examples are butter, cream, and lard.
(diagram)
37
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (Triglyceride)
-They lack hydrogen atoms in one region.
-They have one double bond.
-Some examples are olive oil and canola oil.
(diagram)
38
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (Triglyceride)
-They lack hydrogen atoms in multiple locations.
-They have two or more double bonds.
-Some examples are safflower oil, and walnuts.
(diagram)
39
Hydrogenation process
Pressurized hydrogen molecules are inserted at diagonally opposite sides of the double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids. It converts liquid fats (oils) into a semisolid (spreadable) or solid form.
Unsaturated -> Trans
40
What does trans mean
Opposite sides of the chain.
41
Phospholipids
Consist of two fatty acids and a glycerol backbone with another compound that contains phosphate.
(sketch)
42
Sterols
A type of lipid found in foods containing four fused rings of carbon atoms.
(sketch)
43
How much energy does fat provide for us?
20_35%
44
Why do we need fat?
It is our fuel when at rest or during low intense activities.
45
How much fat should we eat?
46
What is a hidden or visible fat?
Hidden- Fats added to processed or prepared foods to improve texture or taste, which we may not be aware of, or that occur naturally.
Ex)Cookies, hot dog, chips, etc.
Visible- Fats we can see in foods or can easily have been added to foods.
EX) Butter, salad dressing, chicken skin, etc.
47
What are the building blocks of protein?
Amino acids
48
How many amino acids are there and how many are essential and non essential?
There are 20 amino acids. 9 are essential 11 and non essential.
49
Essential Amino Acids
Is an amino acid that our bodies cannot produce at all or cannot produce in sufficient amounts to meet what our body needs. Therefore, we obtain essential amino acids from food.
50
complete proteins
Foods that contain all nine essential amino acids
51
Know what primary, secondary, and tertiary structures of protein refer to.
Primary- Sequential order of amino acids.
Secondary- Spiral shape due to twist and turns of the amino acid chain. Hydrogen boding along the twist spiral adds to its stability.
Tertiary- Further folding into a unique 3-dimensional shape.
(diagram)
52
What determines the function of a protein?
The shape
53
What is Denaturation? Give an example
When proteins lose shape when subjected to: heat, acids and bases, heavy metals, and other damaging substances.
Ex)Cooked egg whites or curdled milk
54
Enzymes and hormones are types of proteins. What do each of the do?
Enzyme- speed up chemical reactions.
Hormones- chemical messengers in the body.
55
What id the RDA of protein? What happens if we have too much or too little? Can it be stored?
-0.8 per kg of body weight per day or 10-35% of their total energy intake.
-Too much can lead to high cholesterol and heart disease, possible bone loss, and kidney disease.
-Too little can lead to bone and muscle mass, swelling, stunt growth, etc.
-It can't be stored
56
Define tissue and be able to list and describe the 4 main types.
Tissue - Is a collection of similar cells that act together to perform a function.
-Epithelial tissue - tissue that covers and lines much of the body (Ex. skin mucous, and membranes).
-Connective tissue - tissue that is found all over the body and primarily holds things together and provides structure (Ex. cartilage, fat).
-Muscle tissue - tissue that provides means for movement by and within the body (Ex. skeletal: voluntary and attached to bones, Cardiac: involuntary and found in the heart, Smooth: involuntary and found in hollow organs.)
-Nervous tissue - tissue that transmits “messages” and is made of neurons and neuroglia.
57
Organ
Is 2 or more types of tissue organized in a way that can do a task that the tissues can’t do on their own.
58
Anatomy
Is the study of the internal and external structures of the human body.
59
Physiology
Focuses on the function and vital processes of the various structure making up the human body. Is the study of how an anatomical structure actually functions.
60
Anterior
Toward the front.
-The belly button in on the anterior surface of the body.
61
Posterior
Toward the back.
-The patient had a bump on the posterior part of her head.
62
Medial
Toward the middle.
-The nose is medial to the eyes.
63
Superior
Toward the top.
-The nose is superior to the mouth.
64
Lateral
Towards the side.
-The eyes are lateral to the nose.
65
Inferior
Toward the bottom.
-The mouth is inferior to the nose.
66
Proximal
Near point of reference.
-The wrist is proximal to the fingers.
67
Distal
Away from point of reference.
-The fingers are distal to the shoulders.
68
External
On the outside.
-The external defibrillator is used on the outside of the chest.
69
Internal
On the inside.
-He received internal injuries from the accident.
70
Superficial
At the body surface.
-The cut was only superficial.
71
Deep
Under the body surface.
-The patient had deep wounds from the chainsaw.
72
Central
Locations around center of body.
-The patient had central chest pain.
73
Peripheral
Surrounding or outer regions.
-The patient had peripheral swelling in the feet.
74
Know the difference between frontal (coronal), median (midsagittal), and transverse planes.
The frontal plane divides the body into anterior and posterior sections (front and back).
The median plane divides the body into right and left sections.
The transverse plane divides the body into superior and inferior sections (top and bottom).
75
What is homeostasis and how are negative and positive feedback cycles different? Give an example of each.
Homeostasis - is the physiological process that monitors and maintains a stable internal environment and balance. Survival depends on our ability to maintain homeostasis.
-Negative feed back - if the feedback opposes the stimulus (Ex. the brain uses a negative feedback loop to control body temperature and maintain homeostasis. If it gets a message that your body is cold, then it does things to warm it).
-Positive feed back - increases the chance of a resisting reaction in your body to not be changed which is often harmful if the cycle cannot be broken (anxiety/panic attacks).
76
List and describe some functions of the skeletal system.
-Provides framework for the human body.
-Produces blood cells.
-Provides protection for organs.
77
Categorize ‘long, short, flat, or irregular’ bones.
Long bones - are longer than they are wide and are found in your arms and legs.
Short bones - are fairly equal width and length, similar to a cube, and are mostly found in your wrist and ankles.
Flat bones - are thinner bones that can either be flat or curved and are platelike. Examples are bones in the skull, ribs, and breastbone.
Irregular bones - are the odd-shaped bones needed to connect to other bones. Examples are hip bones, and the vertebrae that makes up your spine.
78
Periosteum
A tough and fibrous connective tissue containing blood vessels that transport blood and nutrients into the bone to nuture the bone cells.
79
What are the two types of bone marrow?
Yellow bone marrow - has a high fat content.
Red bone marrow - makes blood cells
80
Compact bone
Is a dense, hard tissue normally found in the shafts of long bones and the outer layer of other bones.
81
Spongy bone
Tissue is arranged in bars and plates called trabeculae. It helps make the bones lighter in weight and provides space for red bone marrow.
82
What is ossification (or osteogenesis) and how do the following cells contribute. Osteoprogenitor, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts. How is endochondral ossification different?
Ossification or osteogenesis, is the formation of bone in the body.
-Osteoprogenitor cells - are nonspecialized cells found in the periosteum, endosperm, and central canal or compact bones.
-Osteoblasts cells - are the cells that actually form bones.
-Osteocytes - are considered mature bone cells that were originally osteoblasts.
Osteoclasts - tearing down old bone and help move calcium and phosphate into the blood.
Endochondral ossification is different because instead of making bone, bones are being replaced by cartilage.
83
What is the epiphyseal plate?
The growth plate.
84
What are the 4 stages of bone repair following a fracture?
Stage one (hematoma formation and inflammation) - the blood collects around the fracture in a hematoma. The injured tissues release chemicals that trigger inflammation.
Stage two (soft (fibrocartilage) callus formation) - cartilage fills in the space between the bones and blood vessels begin to grow into the area.
Stage three ( hard (bony) callus formation) - bone replaces the cartilage which is endochondral ossification.
Stage four - the bone is remodelled due to the activity of the osteoblasts and osteoclasts working until the fracture is nearly undetectable.
85
Cartilage
Is a form of connective tissue that can withstand a fair amount of flexing, tension, and pressure. Ex) The flexible parts of your nose and ear.
86
Define joints and how it is classified.
Joints are the areas where two or more bones meet to allow movement. It can be immobile or mobile.
-Fibrous joints - Where fibrous tissue connects two bones. Ex) sutures in your skull.
-Cartilaginous joints - Joints where the bones are entirely joined by the cartilage. Ex) pubic symphysis, and the joints between your ribs and sternum.
-Synovial joints - The only moving joint and most common. Ex) Wrist, ankle, hip, shoulder.
87
Ligaments
are very tough, whitish bands that connect one bone to another and can withstand pretty heavy stress. Bone to bone.
88
Tendons
are cordlike structures that attach bone to muscle.
89
Arthritis
Inflammatory process of the joint or joints. To help prevent it, prevent injuries in the joints and be healthy.
90
Which bones belong in the axial vs appendicular Skelton?
Axial - Bony thorax, hyoid bones, bone of the middle ear, and skull (Head and main body)
Appendicular - Region of your appendages (arms and legs), as well as the connecting bone structure of the hips and shoulder girdles.
91
Skeletal muscle: is it voluntary or involuntary; what does it attach to; what is the main function; what chemicals are needed for muscles to relax and contract; why are high demand muscles darker; what are agonist; point of origin and insertion; synergistic; antagonists pairs and diaphragm?
-They are voluntary because its movement can be controlled by conscious though.
-Attached to bones.
-Provides movement for your body.
-ATP and calcium are need to relax and contract.
-Higher demand muscles have a much richer and larger blood supply.
-Agonist is a muscle group that causes movement.
-Point of origin is the end of a muscle that attaches to stationary bone while point of insertion is the end of a muscle that is attached to the moving bone.
-Synergistic is a cooperating action of certain muscles.
-Antagonist is something that does the opposite of the agonist.
-Diaphragm is a muscular sheet that divides the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
92
Smooth muscle: is it voluntary or involuntary; where is it found; what are vasodilation and vasoconstriction?
-Smooth muscle in involuntary.
-It is found in all the organs of the body expect the heart such as the stomach and other digestive organs, the uterus, and the blood vessels and bronchial airways.
-Vasodilation can lead to decreases in blood pressure due to smooth muscle relaxation in the vessel that allows it to enlarge.
-Vasoconstriction can cause increased blood pressure due to the smooth muscle contraction that retracts the blood vessel.
93
Cardiac muscle: it is voluntary or involuntary; where is it located; what are intercalated discs?
-Cardiac muscle is involuntary.
-Cardiac muscles form the walls of the heart.
-Intercalated discs connect the cardiac muscles together. Because of this connection, as one fiber contacts the adjacent one contracts, and so on.
94
What is the main organ of the integumentary system? What are some of the main functions of this system?
The main organ of the integumentary system is the skin.
Some of the main functions:
-The system helps keep the body from drying out.
-Acts as a storage for fatty tissue necessary for energy.
-With the aid of sunshine, produces vitamin D.
95
What are the three layers of the skin?
Epidermis - The most outer layer of skin that we normally see. It’s avascular (contains no blood vessels).
Dermis - The layer below, or deep within the epidermis layer. This layer of dense, irregular, connective tissue is considered the “true skin” and contains capillaries, involuntary muscles, sensory receptors, hair follicles, etc.
Subcutaneous fascia (hypodermis) -
A
The deepest layer of the skin which is composted of elastic and fibrous connective tissue and fatty adipose tissue.
96
What are melanocytes and melanin?
Melanocytes are located deep in the epidermis and are responsible for skin colour. Melanocytes produce melanin, which is the actual substance that helps determine skin colour.
97
Why does sweat stink? What is the purpose of sebum?
-Sweat stinks due to it being left on your skin and bacteria degrading into the sweat chemicals.
-Sebum keeps the skin from drying out.
98
What are the steps of skin healing after it has been cut?
- wound fills with blood.
-The blood clots and the top part of the clot turns into a scab.
-white blood cells go to the damaged area to destroy any pathogens that may have entered the wound.
-At the same time, fibroblasts come in and begin pulling the edges of the wound together.
-The basal layer of the epidermis begins to produce new cells for the repair of the wound.
-The wound then heals from the inside to the outside.
99
First degree burn
Has damaged only the outer layer of skin, the epidermis, and is considered a partial thickness burn. Skin will be red and painful but will not blister.
100
Second degree burn
Burns involve the entire depth of the epidermis and a portion of the dermis, but are still considered partial thickness burns. it causes pain redness, and blistering.
101
Third degree burn
Affects all three skin layers and are therefore called full thickness burns. Here, the surface of the skin has a leathery feel to it and it varies in colour such as black, brown, tan, red, or white. The victim will feel no pain because pain receptors have been destroyed.
102
Fourth degree burns
Are also known as full thickness burns, are burns that penetrate to the bone or underlying structures such as muscles and tendons. Also no pain
103
How does body hair help us physically?
-Helps to regulate body temperature.
-Functions as a sensor to help detect things on our skin such as bugs or cobwebs.
-Eyelashes help protect our eyes from foreign objects, and hair in nose helps to filter out gross particle matter.
104
Central nervous system
The brain and spinal cord.
105
Peripheral nervous system
includes the carnival nerves and the spinal nerves.
106
Sensory system
Includes the peripheral nervous system's "input devices".
107
Motor system
Carries orders to all three types of muscle and to the body glands, and to tell them how to respond to new information.
108
Somatic system
Controls skeletal muscles and voluntary movement.
109
Autonomic System
Controls smooth and cardiac muscle in your organs and also several glands.
110
Parasympathetic nervous system
Controls normal body functions. Often called "resting and digesting."
111
Sympathetic nervous sytem
The body's nervous system, also known as "fight or flight."
112
What are neuroglia and neurons?
Neuron - A type of cell that receives and sends messages from the body to the brain and back to the body.
Neuroglia - Are specialized cells in the nervous tissue that allow it to perform nervous system functions. They are like the “glue” that holds the nervous system together.
113
How does a neuron pass along a signal?
An excitable cell carries a small electrical charge when stimulated. Because neurons are excitable cells, it makes sense that the way neurons send and receive signals is due to tiny electrical currents.
114
Explain what a synapse is and how nerutransmitters are related to it
A synapse is the gap between a neuron and another cell. Neruotransmitters are used to send the signal from the neuron across the synapse to the next cell in line.
115
What is meninges and the epidural space?
-Both brain and spinal cord, are surrounded by a series of protective membranes called meninges. The purpose is to cover over the delicate structures of the brain and spinal cord. They set up layers, cushioning, and shock absorbers.
-The epidural space is found in the spinal collumn
116
What is a reflex and why are they odd?
Reflexes are the simplest for of motor output that generally protect and keep you from harm. They are involuntary and controlled by the spinal cord to make them faster.
117
What are the 3 major parts of the brain?
Cerebrum - Your cerebrum is the largest part of your brain and is located at the top and front of your skull. Your cerebrum is the part of your brain that is responsible for motor activities, perception, understanding languages, vision, hearing, information, and memory.
Cerebellum - The Cerebellum is the small rounded section that is located at the back of your brain, where your brain connects to your spinal cord. Monitors muscle tone and position and coordinates new muscle movement.
Brain stem - Your brainstem regulates many automatic body functions.
118
Four lobes of the brain
Frontal lobes- are responsible for motor activities.
Parietal lobes- are involved with body, perception, and understanding language.
Occipital lobes- responsible for vision.
Temporal lobes- are involved in hearing and the combination of sensory, information, and memory.
119
Medulla Oblongata
-Responsible for impulses that control heartbeat, breathing, and the muscle tone in blood vessels, which controls blood pressure.
-Located in the lowest part of the brain and the lowest portion of the brainstem.
120
Corpus Callosum
Thick white band of nerve fivers that connects the two halfs of the cerebrum and allows them to communicate and coordinate their activities.
121
Longitudinal Fissure
Divides a the cerebrum into right and left hemispheres.
122
Convolutions
Serve a very important purpose by increasing the surface area of the brain, yet allowing it to be “folded” into a smaller space.
123
Diencephalon
The section of the brain that is not visible form the exterior. It is responsible for controlling hormone levels, hunger and thirst, body temperature, sleep-wake cycles, and for coordinating the flow of information around the brain.
124
What’s the difference between arteries and veins?
Arteries:
-Bring blood away from heart
-Blood is usually oxygenated expect pulmonary arteries
-Thick walls
-No valves
-High pressure
Veins:
-Bring blood towards heart
-Blood is usually deoxygenated expect pulmonary veins
-Thin walls
-Valves
-Low pressure
125
What’s the difference between systemic and pulmonary circulation?
-Systemic circulation moves blood from the heart to the body tissue and back.
-Pulmonary (lungs) cirrculation moves blood from the heart to the lungs and back.
126
What is the pathway of blood through the heart?
1. Superior and inferior vena cava
2. Right atrium
3. Tricuspid valve
4. Right ventricle
5. Pulmonary valve
6. Pulmonary arteries
7. Lungs
8. Pulmonary veins
9. Left atrium
10. Bicuspid valve
11. Left ventricle
12. Aortic valve
13. Aorta
127
What are systolic and diastolic parts of the heart beat?
-Systole is a contraction of a chamber which pumps blood out, while diastole is relaxation which allows the chamber to fill with blood.
128
What are the four parts of blood and what do they do?
plasma- take nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the parts of the body that need it.
erythrocytes (red blood cells)- carry oxygen
leukocytes (while blood cells)- protect us from infection
thrombocytes (platelets)- aid in clotting
129
What are antigens and antibodies and how do they impact possible blood transfusions?
-Antigens are like flags that indentify the blood cell.
-Antibodies are like the cell body’s army that fight intruders (other blood types).
When getting blood transfusion, you have to get blood that is your type or that you are able to receive or else the antibodies would fight the blood type that is not compatible with yours and will cause your blood to clot.
130
What is a pathogen? Lymphocytes?
Pathogen - Microorganism that causes a disease. Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and other microorganisms, such as cells like fungi or yeast.
Lymphocytes - antibody productions, helps fight viruses
131
What is the difference between natural vs artificial and passive vs active?
Natural- Immunity is introduced by a natural process. Ex) ‘Catch’ a cold + make antibodies.
Artificial- Immunity is introduced by an artificial process. Ex) Vaccine or injection.
Passive- Antibodies are created by someone else +”given” to you.
Active- You make your own antibodies.
132
What are some common antigens that affect the immune system?
133
Our cells use (what?) and produce (what?) - the exchange of these gasses is the responsibility of the respiratory system.
-Oxygen
-Carbon dioxide
134
What are respiration and ventilation?
Respiration- Oxygen is added to the blood and carbon dioxide is removed.
Ventilation- Inhaling and exhaling.
135
Describe how air moves through the respiratory system.
When the diaphragm contracts, air is pulled into your airway through your nose or mouth. Air then travels down your airway, or trachea, dividing into your right or left lung via the bronchi.
136
Diaphragm
-Located below your lungs and heart.
-Allows air to go in and out of the lungs.
137
Larynx
-Located in the middle of your neck.
-It makes it possible for you to make sounds.
138
Pharynx (throat)
-Inside the neck
-Acts as the passageway for air, food and liquid.
139
Epiglottis
-Covers the larynx during swallowing.
-Located in the throat behind the tongue and in front of the larynx.
140
Trachea
-Your trachea sits in your lower neck and upper chest, below your larynx.
-It is a windpipe.
141
Bronchi
Your bronchi are the large tubes that connect to your trachea (windpipe) and direct the air you breathe to your right and left lungs.
142
Bronchioles
At the end of the bronchi, the bronchioles (tiny air tubes) carry air to small sacs in your lungs called alveoli.
143
Alveoli
-located at the end of bronchial tubes.
-Small air sacs where the lungs and the blood exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide during the process of breathing in and breathing out
144
List the 6 basic steps of digestion and briefly explain what each is.
Ingestion- Eating or drinking
Mastication- Chewing
Digestion- is the chemical process of breaking down food into small molecules.
Secretion- When a gland organ releases substances.
Absorption- Nutrients moving through the blood and body.
Excretion (defecation)- Waste is eliminated from the body.
145
Peristalsis
smooth muscle contractions of the esophagus
146
Rugae
Your stomach can expand and decrease due to the rugae, which in the stomach, is the wall that allows for these size changes.
147
Villi
The purpose of microvilli, and villi is to provide an incredible increase in the surface area of the small intestine.
148
What are the 2 main purposes of the small intestine? Which organs add enzymes and other digestive chemicals into it?
-The small intestine's principal function is to break down food, absorb nutrients the body needs, and excrete unnecessary components.
- The pancreas adds enzymes and other digestive chemicals into the small intestine.
149
What are the purposes of the large intestine?
-Water reabsorption
-Absoption of vitamins produced by normal bacteria in the large intestine.
-Packaging and compacting waste products for elimination in the body.
150
What is the endocrine system?
Is a series of organs and glands in your body that’s secretes chemical messengers called hormones into your bloodstream.
151
The endocrine system is important to homeostasis. Explain.
-Your control systems, nervous and endocrine work to keep their environment levels correct. This happens through negative and positive feed back, which is homeostasis.
-Hormones work this way too. If hormone levels rise, negative feedback works to turn off the endocrine organ that secretes it.
152
Hypothalamus (major endocrine organ)
-Is found in the diencephalon.
-It controls much as the body’s physiology including: hunger, thirst, fluid balance, body temperature.
153
Pituitary (major endocrine organ)
-Also found in the diencephalon.
-Acts only under orders from the hypothalamus.
-It is split into 2 sections, the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary.
154
Thyroid Gland (major endocrine organ)
-Located in the anterior part of your neck.
-Its “boss” is the pituitary.
155
Pineal gland (major endocrine organ)
-Located in the diencephalon and its full function is still not known. However, it does produce melatonin which regulated sleep patters.
156
Pancreas (major endocrine organ)
-Responsible for maintaining glucose levels in the blood.
-It is also important to keep the right levels of glucose in the blood so that the blood cells dont lose or gain water through osmosis (causing them to shrink or well).
157
Adrenal Glands (major endocrine organ)
-They are 2 glands that sit above the kidneys.
-Epinephrine (more commonly known as adrenaline), norepinephrine, and steroid hormones are all released from the adrenals.
158
What are hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism?
Hyperthyroidism is an overactive thyroid (when it produces too much thyroid hormone). Hypothyroidism is an underactive thyroid (when it does not produce enough).
159
What is the purpose of the excretory system?
removes excess and waste products from the body to maintain homeostasis.
160
What does the kidney and bladder do?
Eventually polluted blood (that contains urea) enters a filter organ known as your kidney. Your kidneys remove the urea from the blood, sending it to your bladder for storage in the form of urine.
161
How do all the body systems depend on each other?
They all work together for you body to work normally every single day. For example, your respiratory system allows you to breath, muscles control movements, brain controls functions, etc.
