Final Exam Review Sheets Flashcards
(130 cards)
1
Q
What are the six defining characteristics of life?
A
- Order 2. Reproduction 3. Growth and development 4. Energy processing 5. Regulation 6. Response to the environment
2
Q
Define the term hierarchical.
A
Arranged in order of rank or importance
3
Q
What is an example of the hierarchy of life?
A
Cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
4
Q
Differentiate between autotrophy and heterotrophy.
A
Autotrophy: organisms that produce their own food; Heterotrophy: organisms that consume others for food
5
Q
What is DNA?
A
The genetic blueprint of life
6
Q
Name the three domains of life.
A
- Bacteria 2. Archaea 3. Eukarya
7
Q
What is the order/levels of classification?
A
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
8
Q
What is a properly-written scientific name format?
A
Genus species (italicized)
9
Q
What is the difference between a scientific name and a common name?
A
Scientific names are standardized and universal, while common names can vary by region or language
10
Q
What are the steps involved in the Scientific Method?
A
- Observation 2. Question 3. Hypothesis 4. Experiment 5. Analysis 6. Conclusion
11
Q
How many chemical elements make up living organisms?
A
25 chemical elements
12
Q
Identify the elements that make up ~96% of the weight of the human body.
A
- Oxygen 2. Carbon 3. Nitrogen 4. Hydrogen
13
Q
What are the elements that fall within the ‘remaining 4%’ category?
A
Includes elements like calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium
14
Q
What is a trace element?
A
Elements required in minute amounts for the proper functioning of organisms
15
Q
What do atoms of elements combine to form?
A
Molecules
16
Q
Define an atom.
A
The smallest unit of an element that retains the properties of that element
17
Q
What are the components of an atom?
A
Proton, neutron, and electron
18
Q
What is atomic number?
A
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
19
Q
What determines the chemical properties of an element/atom?
A
The number of electrons in the outermost electron shell
20
Q
How many electrons can the innermost and outermost electron shells contain?
A
Innermost: 2 electrons; Outermost: up to 8 electrons
21
Q
What happens when atoms gain or lose electrons?
A
They gain or lose electrical charge, becoming ions
22
Q
What is an ionic bond?
A
A bond resulting from the transfer of electrons and the resulting electrical charges between ions
23
Q
What is an example of a compound that is ionically bonded?
A
NaCl (sodium chloride)
24
Q
What is a covalent bond?
A
A bond resulting from the sharing of electrons between two atoms
25
What is a molecule?
A group of two or more atoms covalently or ionically bonded together
26
Compare the strength of ionic bonds and covalent bonds.
Ionic bonds are strong; covalent bonds are very strong
27
What is polarity in molecules?
Resulting from the unequal sharing of electrons within a molecule
28
What is a polar molecule?
A molecule that is covalently bonded with unequal sharing of electrons
29
Give an example of a polar molecule.
Water
30
What are hydrogen bonds?
Weak attractions between the (+) and (-) portions of polar molecules
31
What results from hydrogen bonds in water?
Cohesion and surface tension
32
How do hydrogen bonds help moderate temperature?
Through evaporative cooling, perspiration, etc.
33
Define solvent, solute, and solution.
Solvent: the substance that dissolves; Solute: the substance that is dissolved; Solution: the mixture of solvent and solute
34
Why is ice less dense than water?
Hydrogen bonds become more stable at lower temperatures
35
What are organic compounds?
Carbon-based compounds
36
Why is carbon unique in forming large molecules?
It has 4 outermost electrons allowing for diverse bonding
37
What is methane?
CH4, one of the simplest organic compounds
38
Define a hydrocarbon.
Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen
39
What are the six functional groups vital to organic compounds?
1. Hydroxyl 2. Carbonyl 3. Carboxyl 4. Amino 5. Phosphate 6. Methyl
40
What are the four important organic macromolecules?
1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic acids
41
What is a polymer?
A long chain of repeating units called monomers
42
What types of macromolecules are polymers?
Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids
43
What are dehydration and hydrolysis reactions?
Dehydration builds up polymers; hydrolysis breaks them down
44
What are carbohydrates made of?
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
45
What are monosaccharides?
Simple sugars that are the building blocks of carbohydrates
46
What do monosaccharides combine to form?
Disaccharides and polysaccharides
47
What is glucose?
A monosaccharide produced by plants during photosynthesis
48
What is the molecular formula for monosaccharides?
Some multiple of CH2O (e.g., C6H12O6)
49
What is the solubility of glucose?
Water-soluble (hydrophilic)
50
What are the most common types of polysaccharides?
1. Starch 2. Glycogen 3. Cellulose 4. Chitin
51
What is the fundamental difference between starch and cellulose?
Starch is a storage polysaccharide; cellulose is a structural polysaccharide
52
What roles do triglycerides play?
Storage of energy, insulation, etc.
53
What is a phospholipid?
A lipid containing a phosphate group, forming cell membranes
54
What is the structure of steroids?
Composed of four carbon rings fused together
55
What are the two types of nucleic acids?
DNA and RNA
56
How do RNA and DNA differ in nitrogenous bases?
DNA: A, T, C, G; RNA: A, U, C, G
57
What sugars make up RNA and DNA?
RNA: ribose; DNA: deoxyribose
58
What are nucleotides composed of?
A phosphate group, a 5-Carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base
59
What is the sugar-phosphate backbone?
The chain of sugars and phosphates that forms the structural framework of nucleic acids
60
What is the structure of DNA?
A double helix formed by two polynucleotides
61
Who was the first person to describe cells with a microscope?
Robert Hooke
62
What is the cell theory?
1. All living things are composed of cells 2. Cells are the basic unit of life 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells
63
What limits cell size?
Internal structures for survival and surface area/volume ratio
64
What is the size range of prokaryotic cells?
1-10 µm
65
What is the size range of eukaryotic cells?
10-100 µm
66
What do all cells have in common?
Bounded by a plasma membrane, contain DNA, and have ribosomes
67
What are the four basic functional groups of organelles?
1. Manufacturing 2. Hydrolysis 3. Energy processing 4. Support/movement/communication
68
What is cytoplasm?
The jelly-like fluid that fills a cell
69
What does the nucleus contain?
Most of the cell's DNA
70
What is the function of ribosomes?
Protein synthesis
71
What is the difference between rough and smooth ER?
Rough ER has ribosomes; smooth ER does not
72
What is the significance of membrane-bound organelles?
They compartmentalize cellular functions
73
What evidence supports the endosymbiosis theory?
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA and replicate independently
74
What are the three types of filaments in the cytoskeleton?
1. Microfilaments 2. Microtubules 3. Intermediate filaments
75
What is the structure of the cell membrane?
A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
76
What role do glycoproteins play in the cell membrane?
Act as identification tags for cell-to-cell recognition
77
Define diffusion.
Movement of substances from high to low concentration
78
What molecules can diffuse across the membrane?
Small, nonpolar molecules like O2 and CO2
79
What is facilitated diffusion?
Movement of large, polar molecules through transporter proteins
80
What is osmosis?
Transport of water across a selectively permeable membrane
81
Define hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic.
Hypertonic: higher solute concentration; Isotonic: equal solute concentration; Hypotonic: lower solute concentration
82
What is active transport?
Movement of molecules against their concentration gradient using energy
83
What does ATP stand for?
Adenosine triphosphate
84
What happens to ATP when it transfers a phosphate group?
It becomes ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
85
What is the energy of activation?
The energy required to initiate a chemical reaction
86
How do enzymes function?
By lowering the energy of activation
87
What are cofactors?
Non-protein helpers that assist enzymes in their function
88
What is cellular respiration?
The process by which cells harvest energy from sugar, requiring O2 and producing CO2 and H2O
89
What are the three stages of cellular respiration?
1. Glycolysis 2. Citric Acid Cycle 3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
90
Where does glycolysis occur?
In the cytoplasm
91
What is produced during glycolysis?
2 molecules of pyruvate from one glucose molecule
92
What is special about glycolysis?
It is universal among all living organisms
93
Where does glycolysis occur?
In the cytoplasm
## Footnote
Glycolysis is the only process that occurs outside of the mitochondria.
94
What does glycolysis break down?
A molecule of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate
## Footnote
Glucose has 6 carbons, while pyruvate has 3 carbons.
95
Is glycolysis universal among living organisms?
Yes
## Footnote
Every living organism produces ATP via glycolysis.
96
Does glycolysis require oxygen?
No
## Footnote
Oxygen is required in the Electron Transport Chain (ETC).
97
How many ATP molecules are produced by glycolysis?
2 ATP
## Footnote
Glycolysis also produces 2 pyruvate molecules.
98
What does the Citric Acid Cycle produce?
2 ATP, NADH, and FADH
## Footnote
It uses pyruvate from glycolysis to produce these high-energy molecules.
99
How many ATP does the Electron Transport Chain generate?
34 ATP
## Footnote
This process uses NADH and FADH produced in the Citric Acid Cycle.
100
What does fermentation convert pyruvate into?
Ethanol or lactate
## Footnote
In the absence of oxygen, fermentation follows glycolysis.
101
What is lactic acid's effect on the body?
It is toxic but can be converted back to pyruvate by the liver
## Footnote
This process occurs when oxygen is available.
102
Where does photosynthesis occur?
In the chloroplasts
## Footnote
Chloroplasts are organelles in plant cells.
103
What by-product is produced during photosynthesis?
O2
## Footnote
Oxygen is produced by splitting a molecule of water.
104
What are the two stages of photosynthesis?
Light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions
## Footnote
Light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes.
105
What is carbon fixation?
The incorporation of carbon from CO2 into organic compounds
## Footnote
This process occurs during light-independent reactions.
106
What is a photosystem?
A cluster of chlorophyll molecules in the thylakoid membrane
## Footnote
There are two photosystems: Photosystem II and Photosystem I.
107
Define asexual reproduction.
Creation of genetically-identical offspring from a single parent
## Footnote
No eggs or sperm are involved.
108
What is a gamete?
Sex cells such as eggs and sperm
## Footnote
Gametes combine to form a new, genetically-distinctive offspring.
109
What is the difference between diploid and haploid cells?
Diploid cells have 2 sets of chromosomes; haploid cells have 1 set
## Footnote
Gametes are haploid, while human cells are diploid.
110
What is the role of DNA polymerases?
They link DNA nucleotides to a growing daughter strand
## Footnote
DNA replication occurs during the interphase stage of the cell cycle.
111
What does the central dogma of molecular biology state?
DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins
## Footnote
Transcription occurs in the nucleus; translation occurs in the cytoplasm.
112
What is a mutation?
A change in a single nucleotide
## Footnote
Insertions and deletions of nucleotides are the most harmful.
113
What is natural selection?
The process by which favorable, inherited traits become more common in a population
## Footnote
This concept was proposed by Charles Darwin.
114
What are homologous structures?
Similar characteristics resulting from a common ancestry
## Footnote
Example: the 5 digits of all mammals.
115
What is the significance of Darwin's finches?
They illustrate adaptive radiation
## Footnote
This refers to the evolution of many species from one common ancestor.
116
What is the concept of convergent evolution?
The evolution of similar traits in unrelated species due to similar environmental pressures
## Footnote
Example: wings of an insect, bird, or flying fish developed for flight despite different ancestries.
117
What does adaptive radiation refer to?
The evolution of many species from one common ancestor as new lands are exploited
## Footnote
Illustrated by Darwin’s finches.
118
What are the driving forces of evolution?
Mutations and sexual reproduction
## Footnote
Sexual reproduction increases genetic diversity and variation more quickly.
119
What is a mutation?
A change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
## Footnote
Mutations can lead to variations in traits among organisms.
120
Define speciation.
The emergence of new species.
121
What is the biological species concept?
A species consists of a population whose members can interbreed in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring, but cannot interbreed with other such groups.
122
On what basis are species classified according to the biological species concept?
Their ability to interbreed, not on physical similarities.
123
What reproductive barrier prevents individuals of closely-related species from interbreeding?
Reproductive barriers.
124
List the types of reproductive barriers.
* Behavioral
* Geographical
* Anatomical
* Ecological
* Temporal
125
What is allopatric speciation?
Speciation resulting from a geographic boundary.
126
Define sympatric speciation.
The origination of a new species within the range of another species, not from geographic isolation.
127
What percentage of living plants are believed to have arisen by sympatric speciation?
As many as 80%.
128
What is adaptive radiation commonly associated with?
The evolution of diverse species from a common ancestor when new habitats are colonized or environmental changes occur.
129
Give an example of adaptive radiation.
Darwin’s finches on the Galapagos Islands.
130
What do Darwin’s finches specialize in feeding on?
* Buds
* Insects
* Seeds
* Cacti
