Final Lecture Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Hierarchy of Life
A
- Molecular/Chemical Level
- Cellular Level
- Tissue Level
- Organ Level
- Organ System
- Organism
2
Q
Homeostasis
A
Having a stable internal environtment
3
Q
Static equilibrium
A
If your body temperature stayed the same
4
Q
Dynamic equilibrium
A
Not the same everyday (changes). There is a range that is accepted
5
Q
Autoregulation
A
Regulation without help
6
Q
Examples of autoregulation
A
Stomach
- Food puts off homeostasis, so it undergoes homeostasis to digest it
Running
- Blood to the heart increases by itself
7
Q
Feed-forward
A
The ability to predict a change in homeostasis and begin to prepare for it before it happens
8
Q
Examples of feed-forward
A
Your hungry and walk past a restaurant, your stomach growls, then it makes acid and enzymes to prepare for food
9
Q
Types of Feedback (Loops)
A
- Positive feedback loop
2. Negative feedback loop
10
Q
Positive feedback loop
A
Body’s response to stimulus is to exaggerate that stimulus; Used in situations where the only way to get back to homeostasis is to push through as fast as possible
11
Q
Examples of positive feedback loops
A
Low body temperature.
Body’s response is to make it lower
Labor and Delivery
- Stimulus is cervical stretch
- Body responds by making oxytocin (by the hypothalamus)
- Oxytocin causes cervix to stretch
- Pitocin (being induced) speeds up positive feedback loop; oxytocin
12
Q
Negative feedback loop
A
Body’s response to a stimulus is to revert the stimulus; The most important/most common type of regulation
13
Q
What is the body’s first response to a stimulus
A
Recognizing the stimulus
14
Q
Receptors
A
Recognizes a stimulus and sends information to the integration center
15
Q
Integration center
A
(The brain, usually) Takes in information and determines if a response is necessary; If a response is necessary it sends information to the effector
16
Q
Types of macromolecules
A
- Proteins
- Lipids
- Carbohydrates
- Nucleic acids
17
Q
What is the monomer that is used to make proteins?
A
Amino acids
18
Q
What is the monomer for lipids
A
Fatty acids
19
Q
What is the monomer of carbohydrates
A
Monosaccharides
20
Q
What is the monomer of nucleic acids
A
Nucleotides
21
Q
Functions of proteins
A
Help with structure
22
Q
Function of lipids
A
Store energy
23
Q
Function of carbohydrates
A
Main source of energy
24
Q
Function of nucleic acids
A
Make up genetic information
25
Activation energy
Energy that is needed to get a chemical reaction moving
26
Enzymes
Protein catalysts that our body uses that can be reused over and over
27
What is the function of enzymes
To make chemical reactions happen fast enough to maintain life
28
What do enzymes do
Lower the amount of activation energy required
29
Active site
Pockets that are formed from the what that the protein forms
30
A protein is only functional if
It folds into the correct shape
31
What must happen for a protein to be functional
It must turn into a 3D structure
32
Factors that influence enzyme activity
1. pH
| 2. Temperature
33
When do enzymes not work as well
1. Colder temperature
| 2. Hotter temperature
34
What happens to enzymes in colder temperatures
They slow down
35
What happens to enzymes in hotter temperature
It denatures
36
Denature
The 3D structure breaks down and it reverts to its primary structure
37
What happens when an enzyme denatures
The hydrophobic amino acids go into the water and are unprotected
38
Example of activation energy
Stirring sugar in water
39
Triglyceride
3 fatty acids (tri) that are connected with a glycerol (glyceride)
40
Triglyceride function
1. Energy
2. Used to store fatty acids (they are stored as triglycerides)
3. Insulation
4. Protection
(know 3)
41
Phospholipid
2 fatty acids attached to a phosphate group; amphipathic
42
Phospholipid function
Used in the plasma membrane to create a phospholipid bilayer and protect the hydrophobic parts (heads are hydrophilic, tails are hydrophobic)
43
Phospholipids are
Amphipathic
44
Amphipathic
Parts of the molecule are hydrophobic and parts are hydrophilic
45
Three ways phospholipids organize
1. Hydrophilic heads on water surface, tails sticking out
2. Circle with hydrophilic heads on the outside, tails are protected on the inside
3. Bilayer
46
Bilayer
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer
47
What molecules pass through the plasma membrane freely
Hydrophobic
48
Most lipids are
Hydrophobic
49
Steroid function
Used for communcation
50
Nucleic acids function
Used to store information
51
What do you need for simple diffusion to occur?
A concentration gradient
52
What molecules move through the plasma membrane through simple diffusion
Small, hydrophobic molecules
53
What molecules use facilitated diffusion
Large, charged molecules because they are hydrophilic
54
Osmosis
Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
55
Osmotic pressure
The higher the solute concentration, the higher the osmotic pressure. The side with the more solute has osmotic pressure. This describes the amount of pull that a solution has on water
56
Example of osmotic pressure
- High osmotic pressure is needed by kidneys to pull water out of urine
- Small intestine pulls water out of food waste, so it needs high osmotic pressure
57
Tonicity
Describes the effect that a solution has on a cell
58
Isotonic
Describes a solution that has solute that matches the inside. Water moves in and out for every water molecule that goes out, another goes in, creating equilibrium
59
Hypotonic
Less solute in the solution than inside the cell, or more solute inside the cell than the outside (it is plump)
60
Hypertonic
More solute outside the cell than inside
61
Active transport
Moves things against the concentration gradient, from low to high; requires energy because it is not "natural"
62
Sodium-potassium exchange pump
There is more sodium outside than inside the cell, and more potassium inside than outside; They are moved against the concentration gradient using ATP
- an example of active transport
63
Endocytosis
Membrane makes a "bud" and pulls something in after it pinches off into the cell
64
Types of endocytosis
1. Pinocytosis
2. Phagocytosis
3. Receptor mediated
65
Pinocytosis
Constantly randomly testing fluid from the environment that can be useful or useless
66
Phagocytosis
Pulls in specific things by reaching out and capturing things from the environment
67
Receptor mediated
Extremely specific because it has receptor proteins that have active sites that are specific for binding to molecules
68
Reflex
Automatic, reproducible response to a stimulus
69
How do you detect a stimulus?
By using a RECEPTOR that takes information about a stimulus and sends it to the INTEGRATION CENTER, which determines if the stimulus requires a response, if a response is needed it sends the information to an EFFECTOR which responds to the stimulus
70
Events in a reflex arc
1. Arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor
2. Activation of sensory neuron
3. Information processing in the CNS
4. Activation of a motor neuron
5. Response by effector
71
Pain/withdraw reflex
Moves affected parts of the body away from the stimulus
72
Peripheral nervous system
All the neural tissue that is not in the brain or spinal cord
73
Types of PNS
1. Afferent nervous system
| 2. Efferent nervous system
74
Afferent nervous system
System of neurons that brings sensory information from the body into the CNS
75
Efferent nervous system
Carries motor command information from the CNS to the body
76
Types of Efferent nervous system
1. Somatic nervous system
| 2. Autonomic nervous system
77
Somatic nervous system
Carries efferent/motor commands to skeletal muscle
78
Autonomic nervous system
Controls everything that we move unconsciously
79
Function of the PNS
To bring sensory information to and from the CNS
80
Types of autonomic nervous system
1. Sympathetic nervous system
| 2. Parasympathetic nervous system
81
Sympathetic nervous system
"Fight or flight"; increases heart and respiratory rate and shuts down the urinary system and digestive system to save energy
82
Parasympathetic nervous system
"Rest and digest"; stimulates the digestive and urinary systems, decreases heart and respiratory rate
83
Cell body
Soma
84
Parts of cell body
1. Nucleus
| 2. Perikaryon
85
What is found in the perikaryon
All of the organelles that would be found in a normal cell
86
What does the perikaryon lack that other normal cells have, and what does this cause?
Centrioles, which makes neurons unable to divide
87
Nissl bodies
The equivalent of the rough ER in neurons; has ribosomes, which link amino acids and makes proteins, that cover the outside and makes it "rough"; causes the grey color
88
Axon hillock
This creates an action potential if a stimulus is strong enough for a response
89
Axolemma
The plasma membrane of the axon
90
Action potential
An electrical current
91
Synaptic terminal
The end of the telodendria; where the neuron communicates with another cell
92
Telodendria
The branches of the axon
93
Synaptic cleft/Synapse
The small gap between the synaptic terminal and the next tell
94
Membrane potential
An electrical charge; the charge on the inside of the membrane RELATIVE to the charge on the outside
95
Resting membrane potential
The resting phase of a neuron; when you don't notice any stimuli from the environment
96
What is the mV for resting potential?
-70 mV
97
What things contribute to the negative charge
1. Leak channels
2. Sodium-potassium pump
3. Intracellular proteins
98
Leak channel
Allows for the facilitated diffusion of sodium and potassium ions
99
Where are there more sodium ion?
Outside the membrane
100
Where are there more potassium ions?
Inside the membrane
101
Sodium and potassium have ____ charges
Positive
102
Potassium leaks ____, sodium leaks ____
Out; in
103
Does sodium or potassium leak faster?
Potassium leaks out faster than sodium leaks in
104
Potassium leaking out faster than sodium leaking in causes what
This lowers the charge inside the cell making it more negative
105
Sodium-potassium pump
Active transport; moves sodium out and potassium in; uses energy because it moves things against the gradient
106
Does sodium or potassium move in/out more?
More sodium is moving out than potassium is moving in
107
Intracellular proteins
Located right on the inside of the membrane; negative charge; makes the inside more negative than the outside
108
Graded potential
A stimulus that acts on a neuron at rest; a deviation from the resting membrane potential (more + or more -)
109
Types of graded potentials
1. Depolarizing graded potential
| 2. Hyperpolarizing graded potential
110
Depolarizing graded potential
A deviation that makes membrane potential more positive/more like the outside
111
Depolarizing graded potential is also called
Excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)
112
Hyperpolarizing graded potential
A deviation that makes membrane potential more negative/less like the outside
113
Hyperpolarizing graded potential is also called
Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)
114
Summation
Adding more than 1 graded potential together; used to get to threshold
115
Types of summation
1. Temporal summation
| 2. Spatial summation
116
Temporal summation
When we summate graded potentials from a single synapse
117
Explain temporal summation
One telodendrian synapses with another neuron. An action potential is sent through the telodendrian and neurotransmitters are sent through the synapse; happens one after another faster than the sodium-potassium pump can push out
118
Can you summate EPSP and IPSP at the same time in temporal summation?
No, you can only summate EPSP OR IPSP, not both at the same time; Because one synapse can only send one type of graded potential (EPSP or IPSP) and they would just cancel each other out
119
Spatial summation
When we summate graded potentials from multiple synapses; the sodium mixes; the synapses must be close together
120
What does summation do for graded potentials
Graded potentials are weak by themselves, so we have to summate them to reach threshold
121
Action potential
How neurons communicate; when the stimulus is so strong that the neuron gets to threshold, it will create this
122
Threshold
When a stimulus is strong enough to take it out of resting membrane potential; the point where a stimulus is so strong that it activates a sensory neuron
123
What is the graded potential "battle"?
EPSP is trying to bring sodium in and reach threshold while the sodium-potassium pumps are trying to pump sodium out and get away from threshold and back to resting membrane potential
124
How do you reach threshold?
There has to be more sodium coming in than the sodium-potassium pump can push back out
125
Volted-gated channel
A membrane potential (mV) causes it to open or close; has two gates: activation gate on outside of cell, inactivation gate on inside of cell
126
What happens to a volted-gated channel once you reach threshold?
The gates open and allows sodium to rush through until the membrane potential reaches 30 mV
127
When does the inactivation gate close?
When the membrane potential reaches 30 and stays closed until the neuron goes back to resting membrane potential
128
What happens once the membrane reaches -70mV (volted-gated channel)?
The inactivation gate opens and the activation gate closes
129
Describe the graph and what happens when the membrane potential reaches threshold
When the membrane potential reaches threshold, action potential begins and the membrane potential goes more and more positive, then it goes back to resting membrane potential
130
What can we tell from this graph?
1. In this graph there is an EPSP that depolarizes
| 2. It must be summated because one EPSP will move it only about .5 mV
131
What happens when the cell reaches threshold?
Volted gated sodium channels open
132
Once the membrane reaches 30+ what happens?
1. The inactivation gate of the volted gated sodium channel closes
2. Volted gated potassium channels open and potassium rushed out
133
What happens at about -70mV?
Volted gated potassium channels are closed
134
What is happening at 4 on the graph? (mV moves below -70mV briefly after the action potential comes back down and then moves back to resting membrane potential)
The potassium channels take a long time to close, so they start closing down early causing it to lose a little too much potassium and it hyperpolarizes, or becomes more negative
135
Absolute refractory period
The period of time from when the volted gated sodium channels open until they close and are inactivated
136
Why is it impossible to fire an action potential during the absolute refractory period?
Because the volted gated sodium channels are either being used or inactivated
137
Relative refractory period
The period of time when the membrane is hyperpolarized and below resting membrane potential
138
Why can you fire an action potential during the relative refractory period?
Because the volted gated sodium channels are reset and can be used again, but the stimulus has to be stronger than normal because the membrane potential is further than usual from threshold
139
What happens when the sodium diffuses, going both up and down the membrane, and it goes backwards?
The membrane is in absolute refractory period and can't fire another action potential
140
What is the importance of refractory periods?
They keep action potentials moving in one direction
141
Propagation
How an action potential moves from the cell body to the synapse
142
Continuous propagation
When every single part of the axon reaches threshold; not very fast
143
Saltatory propagation
Skips through the axon and doesn’t touch every part of the axon; fastest way
144
What makes saltatory propagation possible?
Myelin
145
Diaphysis
The shaft of a long bone
146
Epiphysis
The end of the shaft
147
Metaphysis
Where bones grow longer; where the diaphysis connects to the epiphysis
148
Types of bones that make up a long bone
1. Compact bone
| 2. Spongy bone
149
Compact bone
Dense, solid bone; extremely strong in one plane; surrounds the diaphysis for protection
150
Medullary cavity
The hollow space of the diaphysis; Bone marrow
151
Osteon
Makes up compact bone; the entire circular structure
152
Central canal
In compact bone; has blood vessels (usually an artery and a vein); brings in nutrients and takes away waste products
153
Concentric lamellae
In compact bone; each circle that makes up an osteon
154
Osteocyte
In compact bone; The dark spots in a concentric lamellae that makes bone until it traps itself in a lacuna
155
Lacuna
Compact bone; Where the osteocytes trap themselves
156
Canaliculi
Compact bone; Tunnels that connects all of the osteocytes together; made by osteocytes to get nutrients from the central canal
157
Interstitial lamellae
Compact bone; Bone tissue that fills in the gaps between the osteons; made from old osteons that have been recycled
158
Circumferential lamellae
Compact bone; Allows bones to grow in diameter; surrounds an osteon completely; created from stress on the bone and makes the bone bigger
159
Periosteum
Compact bone; A layer of connective tissue that surrounds the bone; allows tissue to connect to bone
160
Perforating fibers
Compact bone; Collagen fibers that embeds in the bone and prevents the periosteum from pulling away when the muscles pull on it; originates in periosteum
161
Spongy bone
Surrounds the epiphyses; strong in multiple planes
162
Trabeculae
Fibers that make the web-like structure of the osteons in spongy bone
163
Osteoblasts
Osteoprogenitor cells mature/form into this; bone forming cell
164
How osteoblasts create bone
1. Osteoblasts create osteoid
| 2. Osteoblasts raise calcium above its solubility limit
165
Osteoclasts
Formed from a macrophage; this cell type degrades/breaks down bone
166
How do osteoclasts and osteoblasts work
They work together in equilibrium
167
Osstification
The process of replacing other tissues with bone
168
Two forms of osstification:
1. Endochondral osstification
| 2. Intramembranous osstification
169
Endochondral osstification
The formation of long bones
170
Intramembranous osstification
The formation of non long bones
171
Chondrocytes
Cells that make hyaline cartilage
172
What happens once blood vessels grow
Nutients and bone cells (mesenchymal stem cells that become osteoblasts and macrophages that become osteoclasts) begin to be delivered into the center of the cartilage
173
How is cartilage turned into bone?
1. Osteoblasts turn all of the cartilage into bone
| 2. Osteoclasts carve out the medulla to make bone hollow
174
How is intramembranous ossification different from endochondral ossification?
Flat bones do not start off as cartilage
175
How are flat bones made?
Osteocytes make bone, then osteoclasts carve out the bone and make it into a specific shape
176
Types of post-developmental bone growth
1. Appositional growth
| 2. Epiphyseal growth
177
Appositional growth
Increase in bone diameter
178
Epiphyseal growth
Increase in bone length
179
Where does appositional growth happen and how does it happen?
At the circumferential lamellae, osteoblasts add more circumferential lamellae layers
180
What is different about appositional growth and epiphyseal growth?
Appositional growth occurs throughout your lifetime, epiphyseal growth begins at birth and lasts throughout the end of puberty
181
What causes an increase in appositional growth
Stress on a bone
182
What happens on the lower part (B) of the epiphyseal cartilage?
Osteoblast turns cartilage into bone
183
What happens on the upper part (A) of the epiphyseal cartilage?
Chondrocytes make new cartilage, as fast (almost) as the osteocytes are making bone
184
What is normal blood calcium level
8.5-11mg/dL
185
Parathyroid gland
Regulates blood calcium level
186
Parathyroid cells
Secrete parathyroid hormone
187
What does the parathyroid hormone do?
It targets
1. Bone
2. Intestines/Digestive system
3. Kidneys
188
How does the parathyroid hormone effect bone?
It increases osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts
189
How does the parathyroid hormone effect intestines/digestive system?
It increases calcium absorption from food which increases blood calcium levels
190
How does the parathyroid hormone effect kidneys?
It increases calcium absorption in the kidneys so that we don't lose calcium in the urine
191
How do all of the effects of the parathyroid hormone work together?
They all happen at the same time
192
If blood calcium levels get too high, what tissue gets it back to homeostasis and what does it secrete
Thyroid gland releases calcitonin
193
Function of skeletal muscle
1. Gives us voluntary movement
2. Generates body heat
3. Stores nutrients (Glycogen)
194
Epimysium
In skeletal muscle; connective tissue that surrounds the muscle; separates each muscle
195
Perimysium
In skeletal muscle; Where all blood supply and nerves are found; separates the muscle fascicle
196
Muscle fascicle
In skeletal muscle; one bundle of fibers
197
Muscle fibers
In skeletal muscle; composes the inside of a muscle fascicle
198
Endomysium
In skeletal muscle; connective tissue that separates muscle fibers in a muscle fascicle
199
Sarcolemma
The plasma membrane of a muscle cell/fiber; generates and propagates action potentials
200
Myofibril
Makes up a muscle fiber/cell
201
Sarcomere
Makes up myofibril that contains proteins
202
Transverse or T tubules
Tunnels that lead to the middle of the cell; allows an action potential to move from the membrane to deep into the cell
203
Sarcoplasmic reticular
The ER of the muscle cell/fiber; makes proteins; stores and releases calcium
204
Protein lines in the sarcomere
1. M line
2. Z line
3. Thick filaments
4. Thin filaments
205
M line
In the middle of the sarcomere
206
Z line
There are two; one on each end of the sarcomere
207
Thick filaments
Attaches to the M line and extends towards the Z line
208
Thin filaments
Attaches to the Z lines and points towards the M line
209
Zone of overlap
Where the thick and thin filaments overlap
210
Sliding filament theory
In order for a contraction to occur, thin filaments must slide along the thick filaments towards the M line
211
Myosin
The only protein that makes up thick filaments
212
Parts of a myosin
1. Myosin tail
2. Myosin head
3. Hinge
213
Power stroke
Describes the movement of the myosin head; always pulls the thin filaments towards the M line
214
Hinge
Connects the head to the tail and allows movement
215
Proteins that make thin filaments
1. G-actin
2. Tropomyosin
3. Troponin
216
G-actin
Has an active site
217
F-actin
Made of many G-actin
218
Active site
Where the myosin head contacts the thin filaments and creates a cross bridge
219
Tropomyosin
Blocks the active site
220
Troponin
Moves the tropomyosin to unblock the active site
221
Things troponin interacts with/touches
1. G-actin
2. Tropomyosin
3. Calcium
222
Troponin will only pull tropomyosin off G-actin if there is what
Calcium
223
Neuromuscular junction
A motor neuron forms a synapse with a muscle cell
224
Cholinergic
Describes a neuron that secretes Acetylcholine
225
Steps in initiating a muscle contraction
1. Acetylcholine (Ach) is released from the synapse and binds to receptors
2. Action potential (Ach) reaches a T tubule to bring it deep into the cell
3. Action potential reaches the sacroplasmic reticulum and it releases calcium (Ca2+)
226
The contraction cycle
1. Calcium arrives
2. Calcium binds to troponin and exposes the active site
3. The myosin head forms a cross bridge with an active site
4. The myosin head power strokes
5. ATP is required to break the cross bridge and reset
227
White matter
The region outside the spine; consists of the axons
228
Why is white matter white
Because it is myelinated
229
How are axons in white matter organized
1. Short tract
| 2. Long tract
230
Short tract
Axons that connect parts of the spine
231
Long tract
Axons that connect the spine to the brain
232
Types of long tracts
1. Ascending
| 2. Descending
233
Ascending long tracts
Carry information to the brain from the spine (sensory)
234
Descending long tracts
Carry information to the spine from the brain (motor)
235
Gray matter
The inside region of the spine; the cell bodies; the nissl bodies (ER) make it gray; this is the integration center; very organized/each section does something different
236
How do the cell bodies in gray matter accumulate
Based on function; organize into nuclei
237
Nucleus
Cell bodies organize themselves into different nuclei based on their function
238
Meninges
Protects the spine from the vertebrae in case of injury; the "air bags"
239
Dura mater
Meninge; The outermost membrane; "tough mother"
240
Epidural space
Space between dura mater and vertebrae that is filled with adipose tissue
241
Arachnoid mater
Meninge; The middle membrane
242
Pia mater
Meninge; The deepest membrane; wraps directly around the spine
243
Subarachnoid space
Space between arachnoid mater and pia mater; filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
244
Main function of the brain stem
Controls unconscious thought; visceral function/autonomic function
245
Medulla oblongata
Directly connected to the spinal cord; all sensory information goes through the medulla before going to the brain
246
How is the medulla oblongata separated
It is separated into different nuclei
247
Nuclei of the medulla
1. Cardiovascular centers
2. Respiratory rhythimicity centers
3. Solitary nucleus
248
Cardiovascular centers
Controls heart function; autonomic
249
Parts in the cardiovascular centers
1. Cardioacceleratory center
| 2. Cardioinhibitory center
250
Cardioacceleratory center
Enhances heart function; uses sympathetic neurons (fight or flight)
251
Cardioinhibitory center
Inhibits heart function; uses parasynthetic neurons (rest and digest)
252
How does the cardiovascular center know which center to use
1. Baroreceptors
| 2. Chemoreceptors
253
Baroreceptors
Measure blood pressure and sends that information to the CNS
254
Chemoreceptors
Monitors the chemical content of blood
255
What chemicals in blood do chemoreceptors monitor
Oxygen and carbon dioxide
256
What does the medulla decide to do if chemoreceptors detect that carbon deoxide levels are too high
It uses sympathetic neurons to pump blood faster to get carbon dioxide out of the blood faster
257
Respiratory rhythmicity center
Controls respiration rate; stimulates muscles that make us inhale and relaxes them to exhale
258
Why are the respiratory rhythmicity center and cardiovascular centers right next to each other
Because they work together
259
What cant the respiratory rhythmicity center do
Decide when to inhale/exhale
260
What tells the respiratory rhythmicity center when to inhale/exhale
The pons
261
Solitary nucleus
Is a relay station; takes in sensory information from different places and makes sure that that information gets sent to the right centers; takes in information from visceral functions then sends it to the correct nuclei centers
262
Pons
Controls muscle movements of the face
263
Respiratory center (of the pons)
A nuclei in pons
264
Parts in the respiratory center of the pons
1. Apneustic center
| 2. Pneumotaxic center
265
Apneustic center
Responsible for causing respiratory muscles to contract/inhale
266
What does the apneustic center not know how to do
When to relax respiratory muscles in order to exhale
267
Pneumotaxic center
Silences the apneustic center in order to exhale/relax
268
What controls the respiratory centers in the medulla
The respiratory centers in the pons
269
The two lobes of the cerebellum
1. Anterior
| 2. Posterior
270
What is in the cerebellum
Grey and white matter
271
Cerebellar cortex
The outer part; the grey matter
272
Purkinje cells
Neurons cells only found in the cerebellum; has a large system of dendrites
273
What is the difference between regular neurons and purkinje cells
Purkinje cells have a more extensive/larger system of dendrites
274
What kind of information do the purkinje cells take in
Information about proprioception
275
Proprioception
Knowing where you are in time and space
276
Proprioceptors
Send information to the cerebellum about where you are in time and space
277
What is the main function of the cerebellum
Controlling fine tuned movements that are learned
278
Corpora quadrigemina
Collection of 4 nuclei in the midbrain that control reflexes of the head and neck in response to stimuli
279
Superior colliculus
The top pair of corpora quadrigemina; controls reflex movements in response to visual stimuli
280
Inferior colliculus
The bottom pair of corpora quadrigemina; controls reflex movements in response to auditory stimuli
281
Red nucleus
Has a large blood supply; gives unconscious control of skeletal muscle; gives us resting muscle tone; sends out more commands then we need
282
Resting muscle tone
Even at rest, there is some tension generated in certain skeletal muscle; mainly for posture
283
Substantia nigra
Inhibits parts of the red nucleus from contracting the extra muscles that we don’t need to be contracted
284
Dopaminergic neurons
Neurons that extend from the substantia nigra to the red nucleus; secretes dopamine onto the red nucleus to inhibit it
285
Hypothalamus
Lowest on diecephalon; links the neural system and the endocrine system
286
Neuroendocrine
The hypothalamus is neuroendocrine; there are neurons that secrete molecules/hormones into the blood instead of into a synapse
287
Hormones that the hypothalamus releases
1. Releasing hormones
| 2. Inhibiting hormones
288
Release hormones
Causes the pituitary gland to release hormones
289
Inhibiting hormones
Causes the pituitary gland to stop releasing hormones
290
Supraoptic nucleus
A nuclei of the hypothalamus; makes anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
291
Anti-diuretic hormone
Helps you retain water
292
Paraventricular nucleus
A nuclei of the hypothalamus; Makes oxytocin
293
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
A nuclei of the hypothalamus; controls the function of the pineal gland; controls when it secretes melatonin
294
What causes more secretion of melatonin
Light; visual sensory information
295
Preoptic area
A nuclei of the hypothalamus; controls body temperature by controlling blood flow
296
What does the preoptic area do if body temperature is too high
It dilates blood vessels that are superficial and near the skin and constricts blood vessels near the torso
297
What does the preoptic area do if body temperature is too low
It constricts blood vessels near the skin and dilates blood vessels near the torso
298
Cerebrum
Home to conscious thought; the main part of the brain
299
What surrounds the cerebrum
Pia mater, arachnoid, and dura mater
300
Dural Sinus
Instead of an epidural space like the spine, the cerebrum has this; circulates blood and CSF
301
Faix cerebrii
Extension of the dura mater that sits between the two hemispheres
302
Faix cerebelli
Extension of the dura mater that sits between the hemispheres of the cerebellum
303
Gyrus
One tube of the cerebrum
304
Sulcus
The gaps between the gyri
305
The lobes of the cerebrum are the same as
The bones that cover them
306
Instead of sutures, what are the lobes separates by?
Important sulci
307
Central sulcus
Between frontal and parietal lobes
308
Lateral sulcus
Between frontal and temporal lobes
309
Parieto-occipital sulcus
Between parietal and occipital
310
Cerebrum cortex
Where grey matter is; superficial
311
Where is white matter in the cerebrum
Deep
312
Classes of white matter
1. Association fibers
2. Commissural fibers
3. Projection fibers
313
Association fibers
Axons that carry information to parts of the same hemisphere
314
Types of association fibers
1. Arcuate fibers
| 2. Longitudinal fibers
315
Arcuate fibers
Allow communication between two gyrite that are right next to each other
316
Longitudinal fibers
Axons that allow communication between two distant parts of the same hemisphere
317
Commissural fibers
Axons that allow communication between the two hemispheres
318
Locations of commissural fibers
1. Anterior commissure
| 2. Corpus callosum
319
Projection fibers
Axons that allow communication between the cerebrum and the rest of the body (spine, brain stem)
320
What do all projection fibers run through
The thalamus (and medulla oblongata)
321
How is grey matter organized in the cerebrum
In nuclei that are in strips that run across the cerebrum over the left and right hemispheres
322
Primary sensory cortex
Nuclei of the cerebrum; "postcentral gyrus"; Receives all somatic sensory information; does not interpret that information
323
Homunculus
"Map" of the parts of a nuclei and what they effect/control
324
Association areas
Interpret the information; where we store memories about sensations
325
What do all cortex have?
An association area
326
Primary motor cortex
"Precentral gyrus"; All of your conscious muscle movement stems from here; Recieves all motor sensory information; does not interpret it
327
Auditory cortex
Receives sensory information about sound
328
Auditory association area
Interprets the auditory information
329
What would happen if a stroke effected the visual cortex
They wouldn't be able to read
330
Somatic motor association area
"Premotor cortex"; stores memories about muscle movements; Interprets the information about motor movements; controls the primary motor cortex; these are learned movements
