FINAL_EXAM_BIOL1010 Flashcards
(145 cards)
1
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Major Attributes that characterize life
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Cellular Structure, homeostasis, growth, movement, metabolism, responsiveness, reproduction, adaption
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Kingdoms of living organisms
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Monera, Fungi, Protistia, Plantae, Animalia
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Element:
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Basic materials from which everything is made; 92 total naturally occuring
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Atom:
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building blocks of elements; smallest, simplist unit of an element
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What happens to electrons if an atom or molecule absorbs energy?
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electron jumps to a distant location and energy is released when it goes back
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Inorganic molecules
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Small & simple, not usually made in living things, not based on carbon chain
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Organic molecules
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large & complex, usually made in living things, based on carbon framework
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Importance of water in living things
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living tissue, as a solvent, photosynthesis, buffer of temp, freezing density
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4 classes of organic compounds
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Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, neucleaic acid
proteins are most versatile and vary most
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Monosaccharides
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simple sugar, 6C or 5C structures, EX: glucose, fructose, used for fuel transport in animals
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Disaccharides
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Two sugars EX: Sucrose, used for fuel transport in plants
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polysaccharides
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many sugars, EX starch, cellulose; Starch is a long term food storage in plants, Cellulose is used by plants for structual support/cell wall, fiber in animals
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LEvels of protein stucture
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Primary: sequence the amino acids come in
Secondary: Primary structures curve forming a spiral
Tertiary: secondary structures become tertiary–spiral curls up
Quaternary: tertiary attaching together to function properly
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Enzyme
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Organic catalyst that allows chemical reactions to occur at body temp, protein, they DONT bring energy, they allow reactions to occur at lower energy
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Nucleotides
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Pentose sugar, phosphate group
Nitrogenous base: AG & CT
ATP
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DNA
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Carry and pass traits
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RNA
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controls activity of the cell
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how nucleotide bases pair
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CG, AU
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CELL STUFF: Nucleus
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Control center,
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CELL STUFF: Cell Wall
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Plants, cellulose
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CELL STUFF: Cell Membrane
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outermost living part, controls what goes in and out; either passive transport (with out energy) or active transport (with energy from ATP
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CELL STUFF: Mitochondia
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Power house of cell, site of cellualr respiration
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CELL STUFF: Chloroplast
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Site of photosynthesis
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CELL STUFF: Ribosome
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Protein, RNA, makes protein
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Eukaryotic Cells
Have a nucleus
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Prokaryotic Cells
Lack nucleus, found in bacteria/archaea
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Photosynthesis
Water + CO2 --> Glucose (C6H12O8) + O2
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Cellular Respiration
"Energy is not energy is not energy"
Sugar-ATP-work
2 ATPs are gained
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Anaerobic Respiration
occurs in cytoplasm
Lactic acid fermentation in animals: no energy, made to get rid of pyruvic acid for glycolsis to continue
Alcohol ferementation in plants: pyruvic acid into ethanol, no energy
2 ATP per sugar
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Aerobic Respiration
Mitochodria
OPPOSITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS: Glucose + Oxygen becomes Carbon dioxide and water
30 ATP per sugar
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3 Types of RNA.
rRNA: ribosomal RNA-make ribosome with protein
mRNA: Messenger RNA-copy gene & carries to the ribosome
tRNA: transfer RNA-brings amino acids to the ribosome for translation.
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Difference between light and dark photosynthesis reactions
light: occurs in cholorplast, absorbs sunlight to make high energy molecules
Dark: takes CO2 from atmosphere, uses molecules from high energy reaction
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Define Chromosome
DNA of a particular form
Chromotin: DNA in a long stringy form, needed to make protein, condenses into a coil and packed together, now a chromosome
2 chromotids=one chromosome; centremere holds them together
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Alleles
Specific form of a gene (ex. eye color)
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Homology
look alike
| carry same genes at same position
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Diploid
Get half from each parent/2 copies of each chromosome
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Haploid
One copy of each chromosome (cells that deal with gender)
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Translation
mRNA code is read to assemble amino acids into protein
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Transcription
DNA is copied to make mRNA
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Somatic Cell Division (3 stages, stages of mitosis, end result)
Interphase, Prophase (chromosomes form), Metaphase (chromosomes line up in the middle, spindle fibers attach), Anaphase (centromeres split, spindle fibers take them to one half of cell, SPLITTING OF CHROMOSOMES), Telophase (neclear membrane forms), Cytokinesis-end with two cells, Diploid, Identical
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Sexual Cell DIvision (Stages of Meiosis, end result)
MEIOSIS 1: Prophase I (chromosomes form, match up and attach, crossing over occurs), Metaphase I (spindle fibers attach to centromeres), ANaphase I (Seperate as pairs), Spilts into two cells--THEN Meiosis II occurs, which is the same as Mitosis.
END RESULT: 4 Cells, Haploid, Unique
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Define Crossing Over.
When the chromosomes exchange a piece at the same place.
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Genotype
Combination of alleles in an individual (RR Rr rr)
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Phenotype
What you see/ the result of the genotype/outward expression (ex: skin tone, height, etc.)
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Homozygous
both alleles are the same (RR rr)
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Heterozygous
alleles are different (Rr)
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epistasis
one gene masks/hides the expression of the second (ex: if C_B_ = black; C_bb = brown; ccB__=albino)
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POlygenic Inheritance
Many genes (more than 2) interact
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Pleiotropy
Single gene controls more than one phenotype (ex: red blood cells)
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Sex determination in humans
X & Y chromosomes XX=female XY=male
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Sex Linkage
gene carried on an X chromosome (ex: colorblindness
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Barr Bodies
Condensed non-functional X chromosome
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Sex-limited traits
limited to one sex or the other, triggered by hormones
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Metabolic Disorders
Enzyme is affected, 1300 types of metabolic disorders. (ex: PKU, Tay Sachs)
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Non-metabolic Disorders
A protien that is not an enzyme is affected (ex: sickle cell anemia, parkinson's disease)
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GEnetic Implications of COnsanguineous Unions
SExual relations between people too close in relation-first cousins shard 1/8 harmful alleles, bro/sis shard 1/2 of harmful alleles; higher rates for recessive severe disorders to show up in children (NO EFFECT ON MUTATION)
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Aneuploidy
Two of every chromoome, except one. You either have one too many, or one too few
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Trisomy
Three copies of a chromosome
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Monosomy
Only one copy of a chromosome
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Deletions
One chromosome is lackin genes. Usually occurs during crossing over a a gene is deleted.
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Nondisjunction
The chromosomes fail to separate when cells divide
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Duplications
Extra copy of a gene
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Inversions
Section of chromosome flips and is backwards casing wrong gene order
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Ranks of Classification in order
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
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Artificial classification.
Based on a single attribute (ex. edible or not?), it is simple, it doesn't work well because we want to know what's related to what.
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Natural Classification
Based on as many traits as possible
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Phylogenetic apporach to classification
group based on evolutionary relationships, complicated
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Binomial nomenclature
two word naming system, used today, started by Linneaus; Genus + specific epithet
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Dichotomous Key
Key for identification--gives you two choices and you follow it through until you find the species you are looking for.
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Taxonomy
Classification/Nomenclature/Identificaton
Classification: deciding relationships among organisms
Nomenclature: To name the species
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Why is Linneaus important?
Created the binomial nomenclature system of naming speices
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Domain Bacteria/Kingdom Bacteria Characteristics
Single Kingdom, Single-celled, prokaryotic
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Kingdom/Domain Archaea characteristics
Prokaryotic, look similar to bacteria, "extremeaphiles"-live in difficult environments like the yellowstone hotspots, acidic enviornments and salty environments like the great salt lake
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Kingdom Protista
Single-celled, many speices, least natural
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Kingdom Fungi
Eukaryotic, Heterotrphic, Plant-like in appearance, Most live off of dead organic material. Ex: Mold, Mushrooms, yeast
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Kingdom Plantae Characteristics
Eukaryotic, Multi-cellular, Autotrophic, Cell Walls/Celluose
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Parts of the Flower: Calyx/Sepals
green, protects petals, esp. during young flower
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Parts of the Flower: Corolla/Petals
Attracts pollinators
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Parts of the Flower: androecium/stamens
male reproductive parts, fillimet and anger produce pollen/sperm through miosis
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Parts of the Flower: gynoecium/pistil
female reproductive parts, stigma (captures pollen), style (elevates stigma), and ovary (egg production)
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Pollination: Self-pollination
some plants can pollinate themselves, esp. weedy plants. No diversity
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Pollination: Cross-pollination
Gives genetic diversity, animal pollination
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Pollination: Animal-pollination
bee flower, bird flowers, moth flowers, etc.
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Pollination: Wind pollination
grow in thick stands like grass, grass flowers, no petals, a lot of pollen-sticky, small
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Fruits and Seeds
The fruits purpose is to disperse seeds. Fruit: ripened ovary
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Kingdom Animalia Characteristics
Euukaryotic, multi-cellular, heterotrphic, move on their own, organized tissues, reproduce sexually, majority of animals are invertebrates
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Male Reproductive Role
Produce Gametes, Transferring gametes to female
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Female Reproductive Role
Prodcue gametes, receive male gametes, site for fertilization, site for fetus development, delivery, nourishment
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Male Reproductive Organs
Primary SEx organs: gonads (Testes)
Secondary Sex Organs: Epididymis: stroage/maturation or sperm; Vas Deferens: tube running to seminal vesicles; Seminal Vesicles: provides nutrients; prostate gland: ejaculation; penis: transfers semen; scrotum: contains testes/temp regulation
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Female Reproductive Organs
Primary Sex Organs: Gonads (ovaries)
Secondary Sex Organs: Uterine Tubes: fertilization/development, childbirth; Uterus: site of embryo development; cervix: hods fetus in place; vagina: recieves semen; mammary glands: provides milk
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Theory of Epigenesis
Start with one cell (zygote)-cell division creates the human with functioning parts
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Prenatal Development: Pre-embryonic stage
first 2 weeks
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Prenatal Development: Embryonic stage
(Still 1st trimester) 3-9 week; most critical stage, organ systems begin to develop--brain is first
Chorion (helps form placenta
Amnion (provides protection to fetus)
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Prenatal Development: Fetal Stage
9-38 week
growth
organ systems grow & mature
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Labor: Stage One
Uterine contractions
Average time 8-24 hours before childbirth
"breaking water"-rupture of membranes around fetus
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Labor: Stage Two
baby is born-passes through birth canal
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Labor: Stage Three
All membranes (placenta) pass through birth canal--called the "after-birth"
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Aristotle's Scala Naturae/Scale of Nature?
"Ladder of Life"; everything is from primitive to advanced, improving as it goes up the ladder
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Lamarck
First to provide mechanism for evolution/ liked the ladder of life idea,
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Darwin
Went to South America, agrees with Lyell's perspective on evolution, goes to Galapagos islands which has no native animals, Realizes each island had its own type of tortoise, finches
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4 Basic tenets of Natural Selection
1. Heritable Genetic Variation: Look like parents
2. Overproduction of Offspring: Environment can only support so many of one species
3. Struggle for Existence: because of reproduction potential there has to be a competition for survival
4. Survival and Reproduction of the Best-Adapted: not random who survives, its the best adapted that survive
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Directional Selection
if one extreme is naturally selected, the curve will shift
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Stabilizing Selection
Losing genes for the extremes because both extremes are selected, curve becomes skinnier
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Disruptive/Diversifying Selection
The average is less likely to reproduce/survive, becomes two curves
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Sexual Selection
Selection of traits in one sex by members of the opposite sex. Females are selective. They choose males that are the most adapted/fit for the environment
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Genetic Drift
random change in gene frequency, large populations aren't affected by this
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bottleneck effect
some catastrophic effect that kills off a bunch of a species causing less genetic diversity EX elephant seals hunted for fur-hunting was banned. they are groing again but there isn't and diversity
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Founder effect
causes the same thing as bottleneck effect-no genetic diversity, two of a population go somewhere else and repopulate it
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Convergent evolution
start with different species, become similar overtime because of the similar environment EX: Wings
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Adaptive Radiation
start with a single species, overtime becoming many species. EX: Darwin's finches
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Analogous
look the same, genetically different EX wings on birds, bats etc. Becomes convergent evolution
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Homologous
don't look alike same basic material EX forelegs in humans, cats, whales, becomes adaptaive radiation
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Allopatric Speciation
Population splits due to geography, can't cross the geographical boundary, becomes two completely different species and cannot reproduce together
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Sympatric Speciation
One group starts living up in trees, the other stays on ground, causes genetic divergence
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PLANTS: Hybridization/Polyploidy
Hybridization: 2 form hybrid offspring (ex mule is a hybrid between horse/donkey) Polyploidy: doubling the chromosomes so the hybrid is fertile wihtin itself, creating a new species
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Premating mechanisms
don't mate. Eclogical isolation: potential mates don't run into eachother b/c of habitats OR behavioral isolation: potential mates encounter one another-mating rituals are different like ducks OR Mechanical isolation: potential mates may attempt mating, but are not successful due to genetalia not matching like in insects
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Postmating mechanisms
Mating occurs, offspring ar not good. LIKE: Gametic mortality where the gamers die; zygotic mortality where the zygote dies; embryonic mortality where embryo dies; hybrid inviability where offspring are produce but are not healthy or competitive; hybrid sterility where hybrids can't reproduce
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Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Used as a measure; Factors: unbalanced mutation, unbalance migration, natural selection, small population, non-random mating
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Human skulls:
canines are not dramaticaly different from other teeth, diastema-humans dont have it, brain size: big, Foramen magnum (opening at base of skull for spine) directly beneath skull, brow ridges: not prominent and forehead extends from brow ridge, roof of mouth is high, shape of face is flat
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Chimp Skulls:
Big long canines, have a diastema, smaller brain, foramen magnum is in back of skull, dramatic brow ridges, shallow roof of mouth, extended muzzle
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Homind skulls
closer to chimps
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Producers:
things that make their own food EX: photosynthetic speices
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Consumers:
primary: live by eating plants (rabbits, deer)
secondary: eat plants and meat, eat primary consumers
tertiary: same as secondary, but they don't get eaten (humans, orca whales, eagles)
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Decomposers:
earthworms, bacteria, fungi
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Succession
Change in community over time
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parasitism
parasite feeds off host -+
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predation
predator kills food -+
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mutualism
both things mutually benefit (sharks and small fish, hippo & birds, flowers & pollinators) ++
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food chain
Decomposers->producers-->primary consumers-->secondary consumers-->tertiary consumers-->decomposers
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tophic level
each level
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competition
SAme species competing for same resource, both are harmed --
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population
group of organisms of the species living in the same geographic area, usually they interbreed
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community
group of organisms of all living species in a large area
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ecosystem
all species and non-living things like temp/rainfall/soil, etc.
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biome
large complex of communites with a characteristic vegetation and climate
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biosphere
entire portion of earth that contains life
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how do nutrients cycle through and ecosystems/energy flow
Nutrieants come from eating plants. Engery enters through sun and is passed 10% of energy in one trophic level is passed to the next
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biological magnification and its impact on species
tendency of toxins accumulating at the top of the food chain instead of the bottom
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population growth exponentially
Population grows, but can only grow until it reaches the limit or the equilibrium phase where it will even out
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attributes of "r-selected" species
intrinsic rate of growth--internal factors
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attributes of "k-selected" species
Carrying capacity
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ecological succesion
change in community over time
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primary succession
occurs when we start with nothing living at all EX: volcanic islands
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secondary succession
Start from some life--something like a fire destroyed the environment
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seral stage
temporary stage of succession
