Forensic Psychology

Question 1

Offender profiling

Answer 1

A behavioural and analytical tool used to create an idea of the offenders likely characteristics. This helps the police to focus their resources on more likely suspects, and can create new leads within an investigation

Question 2

The American ‘top-down’ approach

Answer 2

The FBI began by interviewing 36 convicted killers and sex murderers to gain an insight into their thinking and behaviour. They were classified into groups of organised and disorganised. These are used to compare info from new crime scenes to make judgements based on past. However it is based on self-report interviews and a restricted sample, also lacks validity and cannot be generalised to wider world

Question 3

Organised offenders

Answer 3

They were intelligent, socially and sexually competent, lived with somebody and planned their attacks

Question 4

Disorganised offenders

Answer 4

Less intelligent, socially and sexually incompetent, were more on the lonely side and tend to behave impulsively without planning attacks in advance

Question 5

The British ‘bottom-up’ approach

Answer 5

Research and statistics are used to develop a profile of the criminal based on previous convictions, applies psychological research and theories to criminal investigations. Geographical profiling which sees the crime scene as a source of intel, the behaviour of the offender would reveal information about their everyday life and characteristics. Also analysed behaviour of convicted offenders.

Question 6

Four main stages when building a profile (FBI)

Answer 6

Data assimilation- collecting all info available at scene and from victim.
Crime classification- identifying type of crime committed.
Crime reconstruction- involves behaviour of both offender and victim
Profile generation- making judgements about possible physical characteristics and lifestyle of offender

Question 7

5 main characteristics involved in geographical profiling

Answer 7

Personal characteristics
Criminal history
Residential location- circle theory
Domestic and social characteristics
Occupational and educational history

Question 8

Faults of offender profiling

Answer 8

Classification is to simplistic- can only be used for a limited number of crimes such as murders or rapes. Can be used to identify stalkers or arsonists but cannot identify crimes for material gain like theft. Profiling cannot identify a specific person, more so a type of person. Holmes (1989) found profiling to causes arrest in 17% of 88 arrests in 192 cases (ineffective).

Question 9

Uses of profiling in the real world

Answer 9

Rachel Nickell murder case where they convicted the wrong person with no physical forensic evidence. Case study of John Duffy where they created a profile extremely similar to Duffy’s actual circumstances and characteristics

Question 10

Positivist criminology

Answer 10

Positivist criminology says that criminal behaviour results from physical or psychological features- no free will is involved

Question 11

Lombroso (1835-1909): Atavistic Form

Answer 11

Studied for common physical characteristics among criminals. Concluded that they were more likely to have atavistic (primitive) features, strong jaw and heavy brow. Other features included dropping eyelids, large ears, lobeless ears, high defined cheekbones, flat nose. Lombroso believed that criminal behaviour came from primitive instincts which survived evolutionary process - genetic ‘throwback’.

Question 12

Pros and Cons of Atavistic Theory

Answer 12

Highlighted the role of biology in criminology. Considered the interaction between biological, psychological and social factors.
Didn’t use a non-criminal control group to test if features were unique to criminals. Lots of samples had psychological disorders or chromosomal abnormalities which may have been a factor in their crime. Can create socially sensitive findings.

Question 13

Genetic factors of criminality

Answer 13

Some adoption studies have shown higher concordance rates of criminal activity between adopted children and their biological parents, there is a genetic link but there are also other factors. Some psychologists believe that aggression can lead to offending behaviour, studies have shown a link between genes and aggression. A higher percentage of prisoners compared to the world showed an extra Y chromosome XYY which adds more testosterone and violence and further studies suggested that those with such an abnormality are more likely to be hyperactive, impulsive and lower IQ which can explain criminality

Question 14

Raine et al (1997)- Neural Explanations

Answer 14

Investigated a link between brain dysfunction and criminality. Used PET scans to create 3D images of the functional processes happening in the brains of 41 murderers (pleading not guilty by insanity) and 41 control pptts. The murderers showed reduced glucose metabolism in the prefrontal cortex and corpus callosum and asymmetrical activity in the two hemispheres. So some processes were dysfunctional which supported the link. The researcher used a control group matched on age and sex. But researchers could not randomly allocate pptts to control or killers groups so need to be cautious when drawing conclusions about casual relationships

Question 15

Strengths of the Biological explanation for criminal behaviour

Answer 15

A number of studies have provided support to suggest there is some contribution from biological factors. The biological theories can often be tested scientifically, making them more reliable.

Question 16

Weaknesses of the Biological explanation for criminal behaviour

Answer 16

No study has shown a 100% concordance rate between MZ twins or parents and children so there must be other factors. Concordance rates for criminality may not be directly due to genetics, could be a result of inherited emotional instability or mental illness which could indirectly result in offending behaviour. Biological explanations can be too reductionist and deterministic

Question 17

Eysenck’s criminal behaviour as personality types

Answer 17

We inherit a type of nervous system that predisposes
us to offending; personality varies along three dimensions –Neuroticism stability, Extraversion introversion, psychoticism.
Suggested that individuals have genetic predispositions to a particular personality type, but environmental factors play a role to. Extraversion + Neuroticism + Psychoticism created the criminal personality. Neuroticism was a good indicator for criminal behaviour in older people and extraversion in younger people. These people were more likely to commit crimes based on emotion and will seek dangerous activity. Combined biological, social and psychological approaches. However it was developed from studies which involved self-report measures so could lack reliability

Question 18

Neuroticism-stability

Answer 18

Individuals towards the neurotic end of this personality dimension show traits such as anxiousness and restlessness, linked to instability in the sympathetic nervous system. Traits at the other end of the scale include reliability and calmness

Question 19

Extraversion-introversion

Answer 19

Individuals towards the Extraversion end of this personality dimension tend or be sociable, impulsive and assertive due to an underactive nervous system. Those at the other end (Introverts) tend to be quiet, passive and reserved due to an overactive nervous system

Question 20

Psychoticism

Answer 20

This scale shows how disposed an individual is to psychotic breakdown. Those who score highly tend to be aggressive, hostile and uncaring

Question 21

Cognitive approach to criminal behaviour

Answer 21

Criminal thinking patterns, cognitive distortions and different levels of moral reasoning are all import factors. A longitudinal study examined 255 male offenders from a variety of different backgrounds. First group had offenders at hospital as they are not guilty due to mental illness. The second is offenders from normal prison population, each went through a series of interviews. 52 thinking patterns were common across all pptts such as automatic thinking errors ( lack of trust, empathy, manipulativeness) and crime-related patterns (fear and need for power). Shows that criminals share common thinking patterns and errors. Since there was no control group results are less valid. Only males were studies (gender bias), hard to replicate (longitudinal). Has ecological validity

Question 22

Cognitive disorders

Answer 22

Irrational thought patterns which give people a distorted view of reality, affect how they behave. Includes being self-centred, minimising the seriousness of offending behaviour, blaming problems on others, hostile attribution bias.

Question 23

Level of Moral Reasoning (Cognitive)

Answer 23

Kohlberg thought that moral reasoning progresses in stages, moral understanding increases as you grow older as you take more of the social world into account. Used a series of moral dilemma stories and sampled 72 boys ages 10,13 and 16 and came up with three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, postconventional. Serious offenders have a moral outlook that differs from the law-abiding majority. Gender and culture bias (US boys) making it androcentric focusing on male orientated ideas of justice without moral approaches of women

Question 24

Pre conventional Reasoning

Answer 24

An action is morally wrong if the person who commits it is punished as a result (most common in children). The right behaviour is the one that is in your own best interest.

Question 25

Conventional Reasoning

Answer 25

The right behaviour is the ones that makes other people think positively about you. It is important to obey laws and follow social conventions because they help society to function properly

Question 26

Post Conventional Reasoning

Answer 26

The right course of action is the one that promotes the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Actions are driven by abstract, universal principles of right and wrong, which don’t depend on the situation

Question 27

Psychodynamic approach to criminality

Answer 27

Freud claimed that the only way to really understand how people behave is to look at their past, proposed offending behaviour is linked to early childhood experiences. He created theories like an inadequate superego and defence mechanisms

Question 28

Inadequate superego

Answer 28

Criminality could be an abnormal development of the id ego and superego, id produces instinctive drive towards criminality and superego keeps it in line. A weak superego- fewer inhibitions towards conducting antisocial behaviour, fully responsive to id for pleasure. A deviant superego- if the same sex parent is immoral, superego may be less responsive to crime than someone without a criminal parent. A strong (over-harsh) superego- if a person thinks about crime a strong superego may make them feel guilty and feel like they need punishment and so engage in crime to get caught

Question 29

Defence Mechanisms (psychodynamic)

Answer 29

Displacement, Repression and Denial. Displaced aggression in offenders might explain their antisocial behaviour. If offenders cannot control their aggression, this aggression may then ‘spill out’ of their unconscious resulting in violent and offending behaviour. Most people can repress and deny their urges and keep them at bay but psychodynamic approach suggests a triggering incident or stimulus may release these feelings resulting in offending behaviour.

Question 30

Weaknesses of psychodynamic approach to crime

Answer 30

It is difficult to scientifically test the theories because it considers unconscious processes making it unreliable and lacking in validity. Lots of data to criminology is from case studies and is qualitative and so it’s hard to use it to state laws that can be generalised

Question 31

Differential Association Theory

Answer 31

Criminal behaviour is learnt and it comes from interacting and communicating with other people, most likely learnt from amongst small groups of people (most influential). Involves learning of the techniques but also motivation and attitude towards crime. The law tells what’s right or wrong, the criminal then decides what’s favourable and unfavourable. Repeated exposure to criminal behaviour is more likely to result in someone committing a crime especially if the witnessed crime results favourably. The frequency duration and intensity of interactions with criminals and those learning is an important factor. Suggests anyone can be a criminal. Explains why people often reoffend as they spend time with other criminals in prison.

Question 32

Strengths of the differential association theory

Answer 32

Accounts for all types of people, not just juveniles or lower class people who are often described in theories of crime. Theory also supported by Short(1955) who studied 176 school children using a questionnaire, found a positive correlation between self reported delinquent behaviour and association with delinquents or criminals

Question 33

Weaknesses of the differential association theory

Answer 33

Not everyone is influenced by the people around them, doesn’t consider individual differences. Problems in defining crime make this theory hard to test as it is hard to objectively measure attitudes towards the law and crime, ignores biological influences, doesn't explain individualistic crimes such as murder where the individual was not influenced

Question 34

Aims of custodial sentencing

Answer 34

Retribution (punishment)- the offender should rightfully ‘pay’ for their crime, and deserves the punishment. Rehabilitation- giving a chance to get their life back on track Incapacitation- protecting the public by removing the offender Deterrence- stop future crimes by showing punishment

Question 35

Psychological effects of imprisonment

Answer 35

Mental Health Problems, Institutionalism, Recidivism, Labelling

Question 36

Prison leading to Mental Health problems

Answer 36

Prisoners may more easily acquire depression and attempt suicide. Zimbardo’s study showed high levels of emotional distress among prisoners. Tests found an association between suicide and guilt over the offence. Prisoners may have had psychological problems before which caused their offence so it’s hard to determine a cause and effect

Question 37

Institutionalism

Answer 37

Being kept in a prison often strips offender of their autonomy. Studies such as Zimbardo’s have shown that prisoners are quick to conform to given roles and become dependent on others within their environment

Question 38

Recidivism

Answer 38

Means repeating an undesirable behaviour after you’ve been punished for it. Putting people who’ve committed crimes all together in one place can become a breeding ground for crime. Prisons can reinforce the criminal lifestyle and support criminal behaviour as a result of inmates teaching each other about crime. Can also be influenced by experiences once leaving prison (struggle to find work)

Question 39

Labelling

Answer 39

When offenders are released from prison, they still hold the stigma of having been ‘inside’. They may find it difficult to get a job or maintain their social network, which in turn increases the likelihood of reoffending

Question 40

Negatives of custodial sentencing

Answer 40

Argued that it only exists to the please the public as a sign of ‘justice’ being served and if it really was a deterrent there would be no crime today. Putting resources into prevention may be more efficient as it removes consequences of imprisonment. Argued that it doesn’t suit all, maybe community service would be better for small crimes, allowing low-risk offenders to keep social contacts and jobs which is important when they finish their sentence

Question 41

Token Economy Programme

Answer 41

A form of behaviour modification based on operant conditioning through consequences, rewards which reinforce behaviour and punishments which discourage it. Reward subjects with ‘tokens’ for meeting behaviour ‘goals’ and then tokens are saved up and used to buy rewards.

Question 42

What things need to be established to set up a token economy

Answer 42

The behaviour that is desired from the inmates must be clearly defined A variety of rewards must be given to encourage participation The reasons for token allocation must be clear What a token is worth must be clearly established The rate of earning tokens must also be established

Question 43

Strengths of the token economy

Answer 43

Milan and McKee (1976) studied using token economy in a cellblock of an American male prison. Compared inmates behaviour in several conditions involving normal prison methods, a system of behaviour monitoring and encouragement without using tokens, and a full token economy. They found that inmates performance for monitored behaviours was best when a token economy was in effect.

Question 44

Weaknesses of a token economy

Answer 44

Positives effects of token economy may not stay in place once people leave the programme. A test studied the effect of a token economy on ‘delinquent’ youths. They found that rates of criminality were reduced during the programme, but returned to the same rate after the programme. Token economies can be unethical if a reward is something that is a right rather than a privilege (like food)

Question 45

Anger Management

Answer 45

A therapeutic programme which assumes violent behaviour is caused by anger and frustration, so if they learn to control anger, violence is reduced. Uses cognitive behavioural techniques to improve individual’s self-awareness and control to reduce violence and make a difference after release. Pptts are encouraged to monitor their own behaviour patterns and emotions so that they become increasingly aware of their own emotional changes. Holds reliance on anger as a cause of crime

Question 46

Ireland (2000)- effectiveness of anger management

Answer 46

Aggression levels of 50 inmates in a young offenders’ institution were measured two weeks before a anger management programme was started. A record of each prisoners aggressive behaviour over one week was kept and they completed a questionnaire and had a cognitive-style interview. Measurements were repeated after 8 week programme. There was improvement in 92% of pptts and 8% were worse after. It was useful in treated aggression short term. It must have been difficult to control other variables that may have had an effect on inmates’ anger, such as news from friends and family. Also all pptts were young offenders to results cannot be generalised

Question 47

Restorative justice

Answer 47

Focuses on criminals making amends directly to the people they’ve harmed, helps them take responsibility for actions and be aware of real damage caused. Can be used to various offences, the victim must volunteer to use the approach and offender must have admitted responsibility. May involve face to face communication. Can involve offenders working to undo damage caused

Question 48

Advantages and Disadvantages of restorative justice

Answer 48

It reduced post-traumatic stress in victims, and they were less likely to want violent revenge. Both criminals and victims were more satisfied with this approach than with traditional justice solutions. It decreased the costs involved. One main problem is that people are reluctant to use it due to possibly a lack of info

Question 49

Problems with defining crime

Answer 49

cultural differences, for example forced marriage is illegal in UK but may be allowed in other countries. Historical issues- in the past what may have been normal is now illegal, for example parents smacking their children Crime is age relative- under 10 cannot be charged with crime as they aren't considered fully responsible for actions

Question 50

3 ways of measuring crime

Answer 50

Official statistics: crimes reported to police and recorded in official figures, allows gov to formulate prevention strategies, but unreliable as not all crime is reported or even added to the figures Victim surveys: publics experience of crime, more accuracy but not complete Offender surveys: individuals self-report on crimes they've committed, very unreliable

Question 51

Two features of Investigative Psychology

Answer 51

Interpersonal coherence- the way the offender behaves at the scene, including how they interact with the victim, may reflect their behaviour is more everyday situations Forensic awareness- describes those individuals who have been subjects of police interrogation before; behaviour may denote how mindful they are of covering their tracks

Question 52

Hostile attribution bias

Answer 52

When people misinterpret social cues and think the worst when observing someone's actions. In the case of criminals such negative interpretations can be linked to their aggressive or violent behaviour causing them to justify their actions by attributing cause to the victim

Question 53

Minimalisation

Answer 53

Both magnification and minimalisation are cognitive distortions where the consequences of a situation are either over or under-exaggerated. This bias acts to reduce an offender's feeling of guilt

Question 54

Evaluation of cognitive explanations

Answer 54

Understanding nature of criminal distortions benefits research for treatment, creation of cognitive behaviour therapy. Cognitive theory explains thinking but not the primary source of the offending (nature or nurture). Gender and Cultural bias as Kholberg stated findings as universal but only investigating American men

Question 55

Process of socialisation

Answer 55

Criminal behaviour associated with developmental immaturity and children are taught to be more mature primarily through conditioning; acting immature gets punishment. Eyesenck believed people with high E and N scores cannot be conditioned easily and therefore the immaturity may remain

Question 56

Evaluation of Personality type Theory

Answer 56

Deterministic and can be considered reductionist. Eysenck (1977) compared 2070 male prisoners scores on EPI with 2422 male controls and prisoners recorded higher scores than controls for P,E and N. Gender bias, meta-analysis has shown these results are inconsistent and weren't replicated.

Question 57

MAOA gene

Answer 57

This is a genetic variant that has been linked to aggressive behaviour. MAOA stands for ‘monoamine oxidase a’ which is the name of the enzyme produced by this gene and which breaks down certain neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline. People who possess the MAOA-L variant of this gene (the ‘L’ indicates ‘low activity’) produce low levels of the MAOA enzyme. MAOA-L has been associated with a higher risk for anti-social behaviours such as aggression.