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A-Level Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What is memory

A

The process by which we retain information about events that have happened in the past

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2
Q

Sensory register

A

Temporarily stored information from our senses, unless we pay attention is disappears quickly, limited capacity with little duration, coded dependant on the sense that picked it up.

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3
Q

Short-term memory

A

The info we are currently aware of, or thinking about. Info found in this comes from paying attention to sensory memories

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4
Q

Long-term memory

A

Continual storage of information which is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory to be used when needed

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5
Q

Duration of Memory

A

STM- last very short period of time, unless they are rehearsed causing limited duration
LTM- can last from 2mins to 100years, has unlimited duration

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6
Q

Coding

A

How we convert information from one form to another. Short term is coded acoustically and long term semantically

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7
Q

Digit span

A

A way of measuring the capacity of STM

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8
Q

Miller (1956)

A

Notes that things come in 7s: 7notes in music, 7days of the week…
Suggests our STM capacity is 7 items (plus or minus 2)
Miller argued that our capacity can be increased if we chunk items together

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9
Q

Baddeley (1966)

A

Gave different lists of words to 4 groups of pptts to remember. 2 acoustically similar and dissimilar, 2 semantically similar and dissimilar. Asked to recall words in correct order. When they recalled immediately they tended to do worse work the acoustically similar words. When they called 20mins after they did worse on the semantically similar words.

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10
Q

Encoding

A

The way information is changed so it can be stored in memory. Info enters the brain via the senses but it is stored in different forms:
Visual, Acoustic, Semantic

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11
Q

Two sub-divisions of LTM

A

Explicit- you can put it into words, need conscious thought to be recalled, often formed through several combined memories. Include semantic and episodic memories
Implicit- more difficult to put into words. Can be recalled without conscious thought. Include procedural memories

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12
Q

Episodic memory

A

Personal experiences, these are time stamped. Conscious effort to recall, strength of memory is influenced by emotion

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13
Q

Right prefrontal cortex (episodic)

A

The prefrontal cortex in the forward part of the frontal lobe is associated with initial coding of episodic memory

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14
Q

Hippocampus (episodic)

A

Memories of the different parts of an event are located in the different visual, auditory, and olfactory areas of the brain, but are connected together in the hippocampus to create a memory of an episode

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15
Q

Semantic Memory

A

Concerns factual knowledge an individual has learned. These are not time stamped. Linked to episodic and new knowledge is linked to experience

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16
Q

Hippocampus (semantic)

A

Some disagreement over which brain areas are involved in semantic memory but the hippocampus is thought to be involved

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17
Q

Left prefrontal cortex (semantic)

A

Coding associated with the frontal and temporal lobes

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18
Q

Procedural memory

A

Concerned with learning motor skills. Without conscious effort. Difficult to explain in words, also involved in language

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19
Q

Motor and Prefontal Cortex (procedural)

A

These areas are associated with procedural LTM and aid in the memories of how to walk

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20
Q

Cerebellum (procedural)

A

Helps with timing and coordination of movement, making them smooth and precise. Recent research also suggests a role in higher cognitive processes

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21
Q

Serial position effect

A

“When asking people to remember a list of words which is greater than the capacity of short term memory they have a tendency to remember words from the beginning and the end of the list”

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22
Q

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

A

Showed pptts a list of 20 words, presented one at a time and then asked them to recall. Results created the serial position effect, the primacy effect and the recency effect

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23
Q

Primacy effect

A

“The tendency for people to remember the first 5 or so words from the beginning of the list”

24
Q

Recency effect

A

“The tendency for people to remember the last 5 or so words from the end of the list

25
Q

Support for the Multi-Store Model

A

The primacy effect occurs because the first words are best rehearsed and transferred to LTM. The recency effect occurs because these are the last words to be presented. Therefore they are fresh and in STM at the start of recall.

26
Q

Working Memory Model

A

Central Executive, Phonological loop, Visuo-spatial sketch pad, Episodic Buffer

27
Q

Central Executive

A

Direct attention to tasks. The central executive decides what working memory pays attention to.

28
Q

Phonological loop

A

Limited capacity, deals with auditory information and preserves word order. Baddeley further subdivided it into phonological store which holds words heard and articulatory process which silently repeats those words like an inner voice. This is a kind of maintenance rehearsal

29
Q

Visuo-spatial sketch pad

A

Visual and/or spatial information stored here, visual- what things look like, spatial- relationships between things. Limited capacity.

30
Q

Episodic Buffer

A

Baddeley added episodic buffer later as he realised the model needed a mode general store, salve systems deal with specific types of information, Integrate information from all other areas

31
Q

Interference

A

Memory traces gradually decay. During delay a memory is subject to the effects of time and interference from other experiences. Memories seem to be forgotten because we no longer have the appropriate reminders. When one memory blocks another

32
Q

Proactive interference

A

Forgetting occurs when older memories disrupt the recall of newer memories

33
Q

Retroactive interference

A

Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored

34
Q

Insufficient cues

A

When we encode a new memory we also store information that occurred around its cues, such as the way we felt or the place we were in. If we cannot remember or recall it, it could be because we are not in a similar situation to when the memory was originally stored

35
Q

Encoding Specificity Principle (Tulving 1983)

A

“The greater the similarity between the encoding event and the retrieval event, the greater the likelihood of recalling the original memory.”

36
Q

Eye witness Testimony

A

The ability of people to remember the details of events which they have observed

37
Q

Misleading information (EWT)

A

Incorrect information given to the EW usually after the event

38
Q

Post-event discussion (EWT)

A

Occurs when there is more than one witness to an event. Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with other co-witnesses. This effects accuracy because they may combine misinformation from others with their own memories

39
Q

The amygdala

A

Responsible for encoding and storing associations and the reason we remember trauma. Releases cortisol, a stress hormone causing anxiety

40
Q

How does anxiety feel

A

An unpleasant emotional state where we fear that something bad is about to happen. People often become anxious when they are in stressful situations

41
Q

The tunnel theory

A

An explanation for the weapon-focus effect is that the weapon narrows the field of attention and thus reduced information to be stored

42
Q

The cognitive interview

A

A questioning technique used by the police to enhance retrieval of information from the witnesses memory. Improves effectiveness of questioning witnesses.

43
Q

Fisher and Geiselman (1992)

A

Reviewed memory literature- people remember things better if they are provided with retrieval cues

44
Q

Context Reinstatement

A

Mentally reinstate the context of the target event. Recall the scene, the weather, what you were thinking and feeling at the time, the preceding events. This supports context dependent memory

45
Q

Recall from changed perspective (CP)

A

Try to describe the episode as it would have been seen from different view points, not just your own. Disrupts your schema

46
Q

Recall in reverse order (RO)

A

Report the episode in several different temporal orders moving backwards and forwards in time

47
Q

The Enhanced Cognitive Interview -Fisher (1987)

A

An amended version of the CI that seeks to build a trusting relationship between interviewer and witness and improve the quality of the communication between the two. Witness controls flow of info, no interruptions, open ended questions, pptts don’t guess or say ‘idk’, reduce anxiety of witness.

48
Q

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

A

Pptts shown 3 random consonants (like CVM) and asked to recall after 3 seconds and 18 seconds. During the pause they were asked to count backwards in threes from a given number, as an ‘interference task’ to prevent them from repeating letters internally. After 3 seconds 80% remembered correct, after 18 seconds 10% did. When rehearsal is prevented, very little can stay in STM for longer than around 18seconds.

49
Q

Limitations of the Multi-Store Model of Memory

A

Information is transferred from STM to LTM through rehearsal but in real life people don’t always spend time rehearsing, yet they still transfer information into LTM. Rehearsal isn’t always needed to be stored and some items can’t be rehearsed.
Model is oversimplified as there isn’t one ST store and one LT store.

50
Q

Limitations of the working model of memory

A

Only explains how information is dealt with in short-term memory, it doesn’t explain how information is transferred to long-term memory.
Only research supporting has be laboratory experiments so it may not be representative of the real world

51
Q

Weaknesses of Interference Theory

A

Interference effects seem much greater in artificial laboratory settings than they do in real life, so it may not be as strong of a theory.
The theory gives us an explanation for why we forget but it doesn’t go into the cognitive or biological processes involved.

52
Q

Loftus and Zanni (1975)

A

Pptts were shown a film of a car crash and they were then asked either, Did you see the broken headlight? or did you see a broken headlight? There was no broken headlight in the film. 17% of those asked about ‘the’ headlight claimed they saw one compared to 7% asked about ‘a’ headlight. The use of the word ‘the’ is enough to effect accuracy of people’s memories of an event.

53
Q

Anxiety effect on focus

A

Small increases in anxiety and arousal may increase the accuracy of memory, but high levels have a negative effect on accuracy

54
Q

The steps of a cognitive interview

A
  1. Interviewer tries to make the witness relax
  2. Witness mentally recreates the context of the crime scene
  3. Witness reports everything possible even irrelevant things
  4. Witness asked to recall details in different orders
  5. Witness asked to recall from different perspectives
  6. Interviewer avoids any judgemental/personal comments
55
Q

Geiselman et al (1986)- effect of the cognitive interview

A

In a staged situation an intruder with a blue rucksack enters a classroom and stole a slide projector, two days later pptts questioned about the event using independent groups. Use standard or cognitive interviewing, early in questions they were asked ‘was the guy with the green backpack nervous’ and at the end asked ‘what colour was the rucksack’. Pptts in cognitive were less likely to recall the rucksack as green, therefore the cognitive technique reduces the effect of leading questions

A-Level Psychology (6 decks)

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