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A-Level Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is an Aim

A

A statement of a study’s purpose. Stated to make it clear what the study intends to investigate

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2
Q

One-tailed hypothesis (directional)

A

When there are directions of difference or relationship. Pre-existing research. For example faster or slower

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3
Q

Two-tailed hypothesis (non-directional)

A

There is a difference but there’s no nature of difference specified, no previous research. Could state a different with no specification of where the difference lies

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4
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

A prediction that there will be no relationship between the variables in a study or that there will be no difference between the scores from the various conditions of an experiment

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5
Q

Correlation analysis pros and cons

A

Pros: Can be used for an unethical experiment. If insignificant, you can rule out a casual relationship
Cons: Correlation analysis cannot demonstrate cause and effect between variables. Extraneous variables may lead to false conclusions

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6
Q

Operationalisation

A

How we measure our variables. Allows others to see exactly how you’re going to define and measure your variables

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7
Q

Random allocation

A

This means that everyone has an equal chance of doing either condition

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8
Q

Counterbalancing

A

Half of the pptts are in condition A before condition B and vice versa. This means the first and second condition is not the same for every pptt.

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9
Q

Standardisation

A

Everything should be as similar as possible for all the pptts. For example, instructions are the same across the conditions

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10
Q

Extraneous variables

A

Anything other than the IV that could influence your results. Should be accounted for before the experiment

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11
Q

Confounding variables

A

Anything other than the IV that has influenced your results which hasn’t been accounted for before the experiment begins

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12
Q

Informed consent

A

Knowing aims and giving permission to take part, could be through a consent letter

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13
Q

Deception

A

Misleading or withholding information on purpose.
Need approval from ethics committee, full debrief

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14
Q

Right to Withdraw

A

Able to leave when desired
Make sure they are aware they can leave

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15
Q

Confidentiality

A

Details should be kept private
Could give retrospective consent

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16
Q

Protection from harm

A

No more harm than daily life
Research proposals from BPS

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17
Q

Presumptive consent

A

Ask similar group of people for consent

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18
Q

Prior general consent

A

Consent for different studies, may involve deception

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19
Q

Retrospective consent

A

Ask for consent during debrief

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20
Q

Independent groups

A

Two separate groups of pptts. One group takes part in condition A, the other condition B

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21
Q

Pros and Cons of Independent Groups

A

No order effect- only one condition
Fewer demand characteristics-pptts only knew their conditions
More pptts are needed
Individual differences as people taking part in each condition are different

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22
Q

Repeated Measures

A

There is only one group of pptts. This group takes part in both conditions

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23
Q

Pros and Cons of repeated measures

A

No individual difference as same person does both conditions
Order effect- boredom
Demand characteristics- pptts may perform to meet expectations of experiment

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24
Q

Matched Pairs

A

Two separate groups, matched into pairs for certain qualities, such as age or anxiety. One of each pair take part in condition A, the other B

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25
Q

Pros and Cons of Matched Pairs

A

No order effects
Control for individuals, can be more sure the IV changed the DV
Can be difficult to make perfect matches and is costly on money and time

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26
Q

Double blind

A

Neither pptts or researchers are aware of the aims of the investigation. Used in drug trials, eliminate investigator effects

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27
Q

Single blind

A

Pptts are not aware of the condition they are in, attempts to control the confounding effects of demand characteristics

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28
Q

Behavioural categories

A

Devising a set of component behaviours

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29
Q

Event sampling

A

Counting the number of times a certain behaviour or event occurs in a target individual or individuals

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30
Q

Time sampling

A

Recording behaviours in a given time frame, like noting what an individual is doing every 30seconds

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31
Q

Controlled observation

A

When the researcher has some measure of control over the environment, like the bobo doll experiment

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32
Q

Pros and Cons of controlled observation

A

Control of extraneous variables
Inter-observer reliability
Easy to replicate
Cannot be applied to real-life setting
May be subjective towards what the researcher wants to see

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33
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Studying behaviour in a natural setting where everything has been left as it is normally

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34
Q

Pros and Cons of naturalistic observation

A

High external validity
Generalised to everyday life
Few demand characteristics
Replication difficult- lack of control
Uncontrolled extraneous variables

35
Q

Covert observation and Overt observation

A

Covert: pptts not aware they are being observed
Overt: pptts are aware they are being observed

36
Q

Pros and Cons of covert observation

A

No demand characteristics
Ethical issues as they are unaware of observation

37
Q

Pros and Cons of overt observation

A

Less ethical issues without deception
May be demand characteristics due to known observation

38
Q

Participant and Non-Participant observation

A

Pptt: the observer act as part of the group being watched
Non-pptt: the experimenter does not become part of the group

39
Q

Pros and Cons of Participant observation

A

Insight, experience in situation
Increased validity
Lose objectivity, ethical issues
Difficulty in recording observations

40
Q

Pros and Cons of Non-Participant Observation

A

More ethical
More objective
Less insight, not experiencing
Lower in validity

41
Q

Structured observation

A

Researcher determines precisely what behaviours are to be observed and uses a standardised checklist to record the frequency with which they are observed in a specific time

42
Q

Unstructured observation

A

The observer recalls all relevant behaviour but has no system

43
Q

Pros and Cons of structured/unstructured observation

A

Structured: It is easier to gather relevant data because you know what you are looking for
Interesting behaviours could go unrecorded as they weren’t pre-defined as important
Just the opposite for unstructured.

44
Q

Inter-rater reliability

A

Test should give consistent results regardless of who administers it. This can be assessed by correlating the scores that each researcher produces and comparing them

45
Q

Structured interview

A

When the questions are decided in advance

46
Q

Pros and Cons of structured interview

A

Easily repeated
Easier to analyse
Data collected is restricted
Interviewer bias may still occur

47
Q

Semi-structured interview

A

Combination of both structured and unstructured techniques

48
Q

Unstructured interview

A

The interview starts with some general aims and questions and then lets the interviews answers guide subsequent questions

49
Q

Pros and Cons of unstructured interview

A

Detailed and in-depth info gathered
Can tailor questions
Hard to analyse answers
Requires well-trained interviewers

50
Q

Primary Data

A

Data obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of the research project. Usually gathered first hand e.g. questionnaire

51
Q

Secondary data

A

Information that pre-dates the research project and has already been gathered by others

52
Q

Pilot Study

A

A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. Aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work and allow the researcher to make modifications if necessary

53
Q

Questionnaire

A

Self-report method.
Open- range of answers, unrestricted
Closed- possible answers determined by researcher, restricted

54
Q

Paradigm

A

A set of principles, methods and techniques that define a scientific discipline

55
Q

Empirical methods

A

Methods of an experiment that are based on data, not just theory. Best way to ensure this is to collect quantitative data with strictly controlled variables

56
Q

How do theories become science

A
  1. Use an experiment to test the theory and publish the results to let other scientists see it to be published in a scientific journal
  2. Other scientists read it and try to repeat it by replicating the exact experiment and use the theory to make new predictions
  3. If all the experiments in all the world provide evidence to back it up, the theory is seen as a scientific ‘fact’
  4. If new evidence comes to light that conflicts the current, the theory is questioned all over again
57
Q

Peer review

A

A process used to ensure the integrity of published scientific work. Before publication, scientific work is sent to experts in that field or peers so they can assess the quality of the work. This process helps keep scientist honest, helps validate conclusions. Sometimes mistakes are made and bad science is published- it isn’t perfect.

58
Q

Popper (1979)

A

Argued that theories are abstract, so it’s impossible to prove them right through empirical research. Instead he claimed that a theory should be scientific or falsifiable if it can be proved wrong. Therefore every test of a theory should be an attempt to falsify it

59
Q

How can psychological research impact the economy

A

People with untreated health disorders may need more time off work, treatments for mental health disorders came from psychological research and can help people continue a normal lifestyle, less time off work is better for the economy. Research into sleep behaviour can help shift workers who’s work disrupt sleep

60
Q

Laboratory experiments

A

Control all relevant variables except for one key variable, which is altered to see what the effect is.
Pros: control, replication, ability to establish whether one variable actually causes change in another
Cons: artificial-not real life behaviour, pptts may respond according to what they think is being investigated, deception is often used

61
Q

Field experiments

A

Behaviour is measured in a natural environment like a school, a key variable is altered so that it’s effect can be measured.
Pros: casual relationships, ecological validity, demand characteristics
Cons: less control as more chance of confounding variables in a natural environment

62
Q

Natural experiments

A

Researcher looks at how an independent variable which isn’t manipulated affects a dependent variable. It isn’t manipulated because it’s an even which occurs naturally.
Pros: possible to study variable that are unethical to manipulate, pptts may not know they are in a study and act natural, ecological validity
Cons: hard to establish relationships between variable, deception often used making informed consent difficult

63
Q

Quasi experiments

A

The researcher isn’t able to use random allocation to put pptts in different conditions usually due to the independent variable being a feature such as gender
Pros: controlled conditions, ecological validity
Cons: cannot randomly allocate pptts, hard to establish relationships between variables

64
Q

Pros and Cons of self report techniques

A

Pros: you can collect a large amount of information quickly
Cons: bad questions, biased samples, confidentiality can be a problem, people often want to make themselves look good

65
Q

Alternate hypothesis

A

If the data forces you to reject your null hypothesis, then you accept your alternative hypothesis instead. You can be more specific and be more precise about how they are linked, using directional hypotheses

66
Q

Independent and dependent variable

A

IV- a variable directly manipulated by the researcher
DV- the variable you think will be affected by the changes in the IV

67
Q

Validity

A

Internal- The study measures or examines what it claims to
External- The extent of results of the study can be generalised to others

68
Q

Ecological validity

A

Generalisable to real life settings- generalised findings from one setting to another setting

69
Q

Concurrent validity

A

Results from a new test can be compared to a previously well established test

70
Q

Population validity

A

Can you reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people

71
Q

Temporal validity

A

Assesses to what degree research findings remain over time

72
Q

Face validity

A

Does the test look as though it measures what it intends to measure

73
Q

Reliability

A

Internal- The extent to which a test is consistent within itself
External- The ability of the test to produce the same results each time it’s carried out
Inter-observer: test should give consistent results regardless of who administers it

74
Q

How to prove Inter-Observer/ Inter-rater reliability

A

Even after you’ve defined the behaviours of interest you must ensure that the observers are putting each pptt in the right category or given the right rating

75
Q

The Hawthorne effect

A

If people are interested in something and in the attention they are getting, then they show a more positive response, try harder at tasks. This means their results are often artificially high so the researcher’s conclusion will be invalid, the opposite would occur if uninterested.

76
Q

Investigator effects

A

Anything the researcher does which can affect how the pptts behave. A researchers expectations may result in demand characteristics or lead to them asking leading questions.

77
Q

Must do’s with data analysis from observation

A

There must be adequate data sampling to ensure that a representative sample has been seen. Language must be accurate and appropriate for the behaviour. Researcher bias must be avoided

78
Q

Must do’s with data analysis from interviews

A

Context of a situation or behaviour. Researcher distinguish what is said from how they perceive it. Avoid bias in the selection of data.

79
Q

Thematic analysis

A

Involves making summaries of data and identifying key themes and categories. For qualitative data
Pros: preserves the detail in data, new hypothesis allows new insights
Cons: hard to decide which categories to use, or whether to leave out a summary…

80
Q

Content analysis

A

Instead of reducing detailed data into ‘numbers’ they are analysed into categories. A representative sample of qualitative data is first collected. Coding units are identified to analyse the data. The data is then analysed to see how often each coding unit occurs. Statistical analysis can then be carried out
Pros: clear summary of patterns, easy replication so + replication
Cons: can be subjective, reducing data to units removed detail

81
Q

Meta analysis

A

Where you analyse the results from loads of different studies and come up with some general conclusions. Good way of bringing data together

82
Q

Skewed Data

A

Positive- cluster if scores at the lower end of the data set. The mode is less than the median which is less than the mean.
Negative- more scores of data at the higher end of the data set. The mode is more than the median which is more than the mean

83
Q

Quantitative data

A

Discrete- counted and put into categories, shown in tables and bar charts
Continuous- measured and shown in line graphs and histograms

84
Q

Normal distribution

A

A symmetrical spread of data that forms a bell-shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all located at the peak

A-Level Psychology (6 decks)

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