Forensics Flashcards

Question

atavistic

Answer 1

suggested criminal sub-type could be identified thro specific physiological 'markers' kinked to certain crime types. 'atavistic' characteristics mainly featured head + face, made criminals diff.cranial features, atavistic form included narrow, sloping brow, strong prominent jaw + high cheekbones, dark skin and existence of extra toes, fingers + nipples. categorise certain particular types of criminals - physical characteristics. Murderers described as having bloodshot eyes, curly hair + long ears, sexual deviants - glinting eyes and swollen, fleshy lips, lips of fraudsters were thin + reedy.

Answer 2

meticulously examined facial features of 100 Italian convicts, living + dead, + proposed atavistic form associated w n.o of physical anomalies which were key indicators of criminality. examined skulls of 383 dead criminals + 3839 living ones, + concluded that %40 of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics.

Answer 3

P - Lombroso named as 'father of modern criminology . E - shifted emphasis from moralistic discourse where offenders were judged as being wicked + weak minded towards more scientific realm of evolution + genetics. E - In Trying to describe physical characteristics of particular crimes + criminals, this was start of criminal profiling, made major contribution to the science of criminology. I - other criminologists were able to build upon his ideas of genetics + physical features, w use of modern day technology to accurately profile criminals

Answer 4

P - DeLisi drawn attention to distinct racism within Lombroso's work. E - Features Lombroso described r curly hair + dark skin - most likely found amongst people of African descent. E - Whether Lombroso intended to, there is controversial aspect of his legacy, continues to overshadow criminology + criminologists need to be careful when profiling + identifying criminals.

Answer 5

P - Even if there r criminals w atavistic features like Lombroso suggested,doesn't mean this the cause of their offending. E - Facial + cranial differences may be influenced by other factors like poverty + poor diet rather an indication of delayed evolutionary development. E - In later work, Lombroso acknowledged criminals could be made as well as born due to range of environmental factors. I - there r people possess atavistic features that aren’t criminals + also be people possess atavistic features that are criminals.means facial features aren't necessarily cause to someone's behav

Answer 6

Genes consist of DNA strands - produces instructions for general physical features of organism + specific physical features. may impact on psychological features. Genes transmitted from parents to offspring.

Answer 7

suggests would-be offenders inherit gene/genes that predispose them to commit crime. Lange : looked at 13 MZ + 17 DZ twins. 1 twin served time in prison. 10 MZ + 2 DZ other twin been in prison

Answer 8

50% adopted children whose mum who had been in prison had also been arrested. Adopted children who's mother hadn't been in prison, 5% were arrested

Answer 9

tendency towards criminal behaviour may come about thro effects of environ - combination of genetic predisposition + biological or psychological trigger e.g. criminal role models.

Answer 10

explanation of behav & disorders in terms of (dys)functions of brain + nervous system. includes activity of brain structures like hypothalamus, + neurotransmitters like serotonin + dopamine.

Answer 11

neural differences in brains of criminals and non-criminals. Most evid w indiv diagnosed w APD (antisocial personality disorder/psychopathy) - reduced emotional responses, lack of empathy + these r characteristics of many convicted criminals. reduced prefrontal cortex activity (regranted emotional behav) - raine found 11% reduction in vol of grey matter compared to controls

Answer 12

criminals w APD can experience empathy but do more sporadically than normal people. Keysers (2011) found only when criminals were asked to empathise w someone did their empathy reaction activate. Controlled by mirror neurons. Watching someone on film experience pain. APD people aren't totally w/out empathy but may have neural 'switch' unlike 'normal' brain

Answer 13

P - Many children experience late adoption. E - means much of child's infancy + childhood may spent w bio parents. E - results found in adoption studies may not account for environ impact bio parents have I - reducing validity, can’t determine the cause is entirely due to non bio parents

Answer 14

P - candidate genes a deterministic explanation E - focuses on genes like MAOA to explain criminal behav . E But, criminality is complex, + may be inappropriate + overly simplistic to only focus on biology in offending behav. I - should consider environ influences like childhood trauma

Answer 15

P - MAOA + CDH13 gene have been implicated in violent crime. E / suggests criminal behav is beyond indiv control. E - But this problematic as our legal system is based on criminals having personal + moral responsibility, raises ethical q bout how violent criminals should be treated. I - if remove connotation of free will, hard to distinguish what is punishable as crime

Answer 16

P - support of bio explanation E - Rainefound 11% reduction vol of grey matter in prefrontal cortex of people w antisocial personality disorder compared to controls. E - increases val of explanation as suggests neural differences in brains of criminals + non-criminals. I - raises q whether criminals r predetermined by human bio

Answer 17

P - evid to support criminals have empathy E - Keysers found only when criminals were asked to empathise w person depicted on film experiencing pain did empathy reaction, controlled by mirror neurons in brain, activate. E - suggests APD indiv do have some empathy but may have neural 'switch' that can be turned on/off, unlike "normal" brains where empathy is permanently turned on. I - q how genuine behav when showing empathy or using for own benefit

Answer 18

P - bio explanation incomplete E - found in Raine, could be cause encerator of offending behav or result of some environ factor, in turn makes more likely to become a criminal. E - matters as highlights complexity of relationship between bio + behav + suggests further investigation is required. I - reduces validity of explanation as doesn’t consider all influences like environ

Answer 19

behaviour represented w 2 dimensions: Introversion/Extroversion (E) - underactive nervous systems so seek stimulation, don’t condition easily, don’t learn from mistakes. Neuroticism/Stability (N) - difficult to predict, instability, jumpy two dimensions combine to form variety of personality characteristics. later added 3rd dimension: Psychoticism (P). personality traits have bio orgin + come from type of nervous system we inherit. all personality have innate bio basis

Answer 20

usually high in extraversion + neuroticism . PEN personality - high in psychoticism, extroversion and neuroticism. neurotics (emotionally unstable), introverts (avoid sensation), stable (not very reactive), psychotism (lack empathy + sensitivity), extroverts (sensation seekers)

Answer 21

criminal behav is developmentally immature, selfish & concerned w immediate gratification. By process of socialisation kids r typically taught delayed gratification. People w high E & N scores had nervous systems made them difficult to condition + wouldn’t learn easily to respond to antisocial impulses w anxiety.

Answer 22

Eysenck personality inventory (EPI) - locates along E & N dimensions to determine ur personality type. later version was introduced to measure psychoticism

Answer 23

E theory does fall under spec of psychological explanations but as e made links between personality, genetics + nervous system, there is biological element. E - ARAS (Ascending reticular activating system) is responsible for arousal levels in nervous system + is connected to cerebral cortex. N - Limbic system easily triggered.React to emotional stimuli quickly P - High levels of testosterone (increased aggression), Serotonin levels

Answer 24

P - research supporting theory’s doesn’t look at those criminals who aren’t caught, so only compare convicted to general popul E - incomplete explanation E - only compare convicted criminals to general population I - researcher only telling us bout unsuccessful criminals, criminals not get caught may have diff set of personality characteristics - can’t be generalised

Answer 25

P - has holistic and complete view E - acknowledges both nature and nurture. E - argues strongly bio predispositions towards certain personality traits combined w conditioning + socialization during childhood in order to create our personality. I - interactionist approach may be much more valid than either bio or environ theory alone.

Answer 26

P - issue w method used to develop theory of criminal personality. E- used Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) to assess indivs personality, w score/label given to person depending on ans they provide on perso questionnaire. issue is that EPQ uses simple yes/no q - offer "forced choice" between ans - high in trait/ answer which is low. E- an issue as asked to select traits best apply to them, but responses may not represent 'reality' & may inaccurately label person as having/not having a criminal personality. Also, as offenders are often used in sample, socially desirability bias may occur, may question truthfulness of responses provided, decreasing validity. L- s careful considerations of measure used should be made prior to drawing any conclusions about criminal personalities.

Answer 27

MR - process of assessing whether something right/wrong based on own value system

Answer 28

L1 - stage 1 : punishment orientation (rules obeyed to avoid punishment) stage 2 : instrumental orientation/personal gain) L2 - stage 3 : good boy/girl orientation (rules obeyed for approval) stage 4 : maintenance of social order (rules obeyed to maintain social order) L3 - stage 5 : morality of contract + indiv rights (rules obeyed if impartial : democratic rules challenged if intrigue on others’ rights) stage 6 : morality of conscience (indiv establish his/her own rules on accordance w personal set of ethical principles

Answer 29

L1&2 - Criminals have lower level of MR than others. Criminals don’t progress from pre-conventional level of MR - seek to avoid punishment + gain rewards. have child-like reasoning. those who reason at this level may commit crime if can get away w it/gain rewards. Non-criminals tend to reason at higher levels + sympathise w rights of others, exhibiting honesty, generosity + non-violence (post-conventional MR)

Answer 30

investigated if morality associated w delinquency. 2 male samples used . 1st sample - 97 convicted offenders aged 13-21. 2nd sample, control group - 77 non offenders aged 12-24 from midlands. given 4 diff psychometricquestionnaires ( provided support that morality was associated w delinquency as control group showed diff from offenders)

Answer 31

measured at level of moral development parti was functioning ( offenders had more mature reasoning than non offenders + greater hostile attribution bias

Answer 32

measured perception of parenting they had when younger ( offenders experienced their parents be more rejecting)

Answer 33

measured how parti perceived ambiguous situations by looking at pic + determining whether eg saw an aggressive or not ( offenders made more hostile attribution of intent)

Answer 34

baso list of crimes they had committed (modal scores on SRD checklist for offenders 24 while for control sample 4)

Answer 35

P - support link between level of MR + offending. E - Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared MR between 210 female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using Socio-Moral Reflection Measure-Short Form. offending group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offending groups. E - consistent w Kohlberg's predictions. L - Blackburn (1993) suggests offenders may show poor moral development due to lack of role-playing opportunities in childhood, suggesting such opportunities to develop MR should be provided.

Answer 36

P - level of MR may depend on offence type. E - Thornton & Reid found indiv who committed crimes for financial gain like robbery, more likely to show pre-conventional MR than those convicted of impulsive crimes like assault where reasoning of any kind tended not to be evident. E - s level of MR may explain certain crimes, eg where offenders believe they have good chance of evading punishment. I - limited application as can’t be applied to all crimes like of high profile criminals (low generalisability)

Answer 37

P - Langdon suggested l intelligence may be a better predictor of criminality than MR E - would explain findings that groups of people w very low intelligence r actually less likely to commit crime; despite they show lower levels of MR E - contradicts Kohlberg's theory as would suggest should be more likely to commit crime if in preconventional level. I - factor may need to be considered like intelligence, reducing validity of Theory

Answer 38

Faulty, biased + irrational ways of thinking - perceive ourselves, other people + the world inaccurately (usually negatively). errors/ biases in people's info processing system.

Answer 39

tendency to judge ambiguous situations, or actions of others as aggressive and/or threatening when may not be. Violence caused by perception that other people's acts r aggressive. »E.g. giving me a funny look - reason for attacking someone, when no such look happened.

Answer 40

dodge + frame Showed kids a video of l 'ambiguous provocation' ( intention neither clearly hostile nor aggressive). kids who been identified as 'aggressive' + 'rejected' prior to study interpreted situation as more hostile than those classed as 'non-aggressive + 'accepted'.

Answer 41

Minimise guilt felt by offenders. Downplaying seriousness of an offence. Euphemistic labelling', e.g. burglars r just ‘supporting family’. Some will underplay their offence, e.g. paedophiles may claim they were" just being affectionate"

Answer 42

Studies suggest invid who commit sexual offences r particularly prone to minimalisation. Barbaree found among 26 imprisoned rapists, 54% denied they had committed offence at all + further 40% minimised harm caused to victim.

Answer 43

P - cog distortion as explanation of offending behaviour has practical application. E - dominant approach in rehabilitation of sex offenders is CBT. E - encourages offenders to 'face up' to what they done + establish less distorted views of their actions. Studies suggest reduced incidence of denial + minimalisation in therapy highly correlated w reduced risk of reoffending + key feature of anger management. I - prevent high crime rate

Answer 44

P a explanation of offending behav can be thought of as descriptive rather than explanatory. E - cog approach can describe criminal mind. eg, can show how hostile attribution bias can lead to offending behav. E - theory doesn’t explain why/how cog distortions occur in first place. I - w/out knowing root of cog distractions appropriate measures can’t be used to control it, reduces validity of explaiantion

Answer 45

P - Studies suggest indiv who commit sexual offences are particularly prone to minimalisation. E - Barbaree found among 26 imprisoned rapists, 54% denied they committed offence at all + further 40% minimised harm caused to the victim. E - suggests that the cognitive distortion of minimalisation is involved in offending behaviour. I - increasing validity as programmes can be established to tackle this specific cog distortions

Answer 46

explanation for offending, proposes thro interaction w others, indiv learn values, attitudes, techniques, + motives for criminal behav. suggests offending behav may be acquired in same way as any other behav, thro process of learning. Criminality arises from 2 factors: learned attitudes towards crime, + learning of specific criminal act. When person is socialised into group, they will be exposed to values + attitudes towards law.

Answer 47

Sutherland argues if n.o of pro-criminal (for) attitudes person has outweighs n.o of anti-criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend.theory designed to discriminate between indiv who become criminals + those who don’t, whatever their class or ethnic background

Answer 48

all criminal behav learned. Criminal behav learned thro interactions w others via process of communication.

Answer 49

Offending behav may be acquired in same way as any other behav thro process of learning. Learning occurs most often thro interactions w significant others the child associates w.

Answer 50

learned attitudes to crime : Exposed to values + attitudes towards law.Learning process is same whether person is learning criminality/conformity to law. Should be possible to mathematically predict how likely indiv will commit crime by frequency, intensity + duration they been exposed to deviant + non-deviant norms + values. learning of specific criminal acts : would-be offender would need to learn techniques for committing crime. include how to break into someone's house thro locked window.Whilst in prison, inmates learn specific techniques of offending from others

Answer 51

P - Not everyone exposed to criminal influences goes on to commit crime. E - DA theory doesn’t account for this as focuses on environmental determinism (behav will occur cause of indiv environ). E - This explanation doesn’t account for free will + choice in whether to offend. I - decrease EV as it can’t be applied to all situation like criminal parents and children

Answer 52

P - DA theory accounts for crime within all sectors of society. E - can explain both working class crime like robbery, and white collar crime like fraud. E - increases validity of explanation of offending behav as can be applied to all indiv. I - can be generalised to all crimes and establish programmes to prevent crimes

Answer 53

P - DA theory drew focus onto dysfunctional social circumstances + environ may be more to blame for criminality than dysfunctional people. E - approachmore desirable as offers a more realistic solution to prob of crime eg thro education + tackling issues in society. E - better than solutions provided via biological explanations which would be eugenics/Kohlberg's theory of morality, where punishment would be solution. I - decrease crime rates

Answer 54

Absence of same-sex parent during phallic stage. child can’t identify w same sex parent. superego not fully formed+ child has a lack of understanding of diff between right + wrong. Unable to control id's desires for instant gratification.Lack of punishment by superego = no guilt. child will show criminal/immoral behav as superego doesn’t hold them back

Answer 55

healthy superego is firm + has rules of what behav are + aren’t acceptable, but if rules r broken, superego will be forgiving. over-harsh superego, which won’t be forgiving, increases guilt for wrongdoing. may unconsciously drive indiv to perform offending behav (immoral acts) to satisfy superego's overwhelming need for guilt

Answer 56

child identifies w same-sex parent, but parent is immoral/has immoral standards of behav. child internalises morals that aren’t acceptable. child doesn’t see criminal behav in m same way as others and won’t associate guilt + criminal behav E.g. boy raised by criminal father isn’t likely to associate guilt w wrongdoing

Answer 57

P - methodological problems w Bowlby's research. E - has been accused of researcher bias as his preconceptions of what he expected to find may have influenced responses of his interviewers. E - means study itself may not be valid, in turn reduces validity of explanation for offending behav. I - social sensitive research + findings as suggest mothers to blame for kids becoming criminals due for prolonged separation of maternal figure

Answer 58

P - maternal deprivation theory as an explanation for offending can be criticised for showing psychic determinism. E -believes criminal behav is caused by unconscious conflicts that we can’t control i.e. deprivation from mother-figure. E - doesn’t take account indiv have free will + could actively choose whether or not to partake in criminal behav, regardless of childhood experiences. I - criminals can’t be held accountable for crimes in judiciary court which prosecutes criminals under idea that everyone acts due to their own free will

Answer 59

P - Research into maternal deprivation as a cause of offending behav can be questioned. E - Just because Bowlby found that there was a relationship between children who experienced frequent of prolonged separation form their mothers + committing crime in later life, doesn’t mean deprivation caused delinquency. E - link is only correlational. as there r third variables that can impact e.g having weak superego/diff brain structure in turn leads to more crime. I - if cause and effect identified, more research must be done as bolwby did 1 study

Answer 60

P - inadequate supervision explanation has little supporting evid E - eg kids raised w/out same sex parent don’t appear to be less law abiding as adults E - contradicts blackburns weak superego argument I - can’t be determined or falsified so invalid argument

Answer 61

P - superegos r unconscious concept E - lack falsifiability as can’t empirically test whether someone’s superego causes criminal behav E - in absence of supporting evid, arguments like inadequate superego can only be judged on face value rather than scientific worth I - not all offending behav caused same way, can’t generalise

Answer 62

P - implicit assumption within Freuds theory is girls develop weaker superego than boys E - they don’t experience castration anxiety. as result their superego + sense of morality isn’t realisedto same extent E - inadequate superego explantion suffers from gender bias as suggest females should be more prone to criminal behav than males I - can’t generalise

Answer 63

judicial sentence determined by court, where offender punished by serving time in prison/ some other closed therapeutic and/or educational institution

Answer 64

Unpleasant experience is designed to 'put off' Conditioning thro punishment 1)General deterrence: broad message that crime won’t be tolerated 2) indiv deterrence: Prevents indiv from repeating crime

Answer 65

Protects public (prevents offender from reoffending) Depends on crime - Society needs more protection from serial murderer/ rapist than someone not paying council tax.

Answer 66

Society enacting revenge on offender by making them suffer

Answer 67

Prison makes offenders better adjusted provides opportunities to develop skills/treatment programmes

Answer 68

Stress + depression • Suicide rates r higher in prisons • Self harm rates r higher in prisons Institutionalisation • Adaptation to prison life: no longer able to function outside Prisonisation • 'inmate code' - behav considered unacceptable in outside world can be rewarded in prison bartol - last 20 yrs, suicide rates r 15x higher than general population

Answer 69

Reoffending, a tendency to relapse into previous condition/behav (norway lowest rate in europe but uk + us highest) Ministry of Justice 2013 - 57% of offenders will reoffend

Answer 70

P - Custodial sentencing may provide opportunities for rehabilitation. E - Offenders may access programmes in prison like anger management which make them less likely to reoffend in future. E - in addition to education + training regarding employment. I - suggests prison could be worthwhile experience assuming offenders are able to access these programmes.Providing people insight into behav + helping them to have legitimate income, may reduce likelihood of recidivism.

Answer 71

P - alternatives to custodial sentencing, may be more effective. E - eg, community service + restorative justice. E - programmes allow family contact to be maintained, alongside employment, may be more beneficial than removing indiv from society. E - alternatives, however, r rarely offered as seen as 'soft' options for dealing w crime + politicians want to remain in favour w public.

Answer 72

P - neg psychological effects for indiv in custodial sentencing. E - Suicide rates among offenders r about 15x higher than in general population, w young single men in 1st 24 hours of confinement most at risk. E - However, it can’t be assumed that all offenders will react in same, neg way to imprisonment. diff prisons have diff regimes, so there will be variation of experience. psychological effects will be mitigated based on length of sentence, reason for incarceration + previous periods of confinement. I - makes general conclusions about psychological effects of custodial sentencing difficult.

Answer 73

To replace undesirable behaviours w more desirable ones thro selective use of positive and/or neg reinforcement

Answer 74

All behav is learnt. behav can be unlearnt - behav modification programmes r designed to reinforce obedient behaviours, whilst punishing disobedience in hope that disobedient behav will become extinct

Answer 75

Based on operant conditioning • Reinforce desirable behav w token that can be exchanged for reward • Prisoners r given token each time they perform these desirable behav • Tokens r secondary reinforcers as they derive their value from association w reward All of behav + rewards must be made clear to prisoners for programme to be implemented. be emphasised non-compliance will result in punishment (removal of tokens/subsequent rewards)

Answer 76

• Hobbs and Holt introduced token economy w groups of young delinquents across 3 behavioural units (4th as control) • observed significant diff in pos behav compared to non-token economy group: Before tokens introduced, percentage of desired behavs in 3 institutions was 66%, 47%, 73%. After Token economy policy been introduced, percentage of desired behav was 91%, 81%, 94%. • similar effect was found w offenders in adult prison in study by Allyon

Answer 77

P - programmes can be regarded as manipulative + dehumanising (Moya and Achtenburg) E - When used in institutes, scheme is obligatory. E - If offenders decide not to comply w scheme, critics suggested it may be ethically questionable to withdraw privileges I - more research should be conducted so ethics are secured to prevent any ethical issues

Answer 78

P - behav modification deals w surface behav only E - Offenders may play along to gain rewards but this produces little change in their overall character E - Therefore token economies are ineffective I - root of prob should be identified to establish programmes that directly target them

Answer 79

P - Token economies have little rehabilitative value. E - Blackburn found any pos change made due to token economies is lost when they r released. E - as law-abiding behav not always reinforced outside of prison settings. I - offenders won’t perform good behaviours if not being rewarded for them. The impact of this is that offenders will reoffend as rehabilitation isn't successful after the removal of a token economy policy.

Answer 80

system for dealing w criminal behav, focuses on rehabilitation of offenders thro reconciliation of victims

Answer 81

- Enables offender to see impact of their crime - victims have a voice and active role jn process - switches needs from state (enforce law) to needs of victim (offenders required to take responsibility + face what they done)

Answer 82

independent body - Establishes clear standards for use of restorative justice + supports both victims and professionals in field. advocates use of restorative practice in preventing + managing conflict in many areas including schools,workplaces, hospitals

Answer 83

P - One strength of restorative justice is there is degree of flexibility in the way in which the programmes can be administered. E - Restorative justice can take place in many settings like schools so it‘s not ‘one size fits all' like custodial sentencing. E - means schemes can be adapted to needs of indiv + makes restorative justice diverse program. I - However, this presents difficulties as may not be able to draw conclusions about effectiveness of approach as it focuses on criminals individually + not as collective group.

Answer 84

P - Restorative justice relies on offender showing remorse. E - Offenders may sign up for scheme to avoid prison rather than genuine willingness to want to make amends w victim. E - Victims may also have own ulterior motive to seek revenge/retribution of own when agreeing to take part. means restorative justice programmes may not lead to pos outcomes it intends. I - impact is that if doesn't lead to pos outcomes when ether party doesn't agree to take part w best intentions, it reduces val of effectiveness of restorative justice.

Answer 85

P - Restorative justice may not be suitable for all crimes. E - Women's aid have called legislative ban on use of restorative justice in domestic violence cases, unlikely rape victim would want contact w perpetrator. E - In cases of murder criminal couldn’t apologise to actual victim + may be a danger to society so unlikely to be suitable. I - impact is restorative justice may not be suitable for violent crimes/crimes were re-victimisation may occur + other options need to be considered.

Forensics Flashcards

(109 cards)