Memory

Question 1

coding

Answer 1

format in which information is stored in the various memory stores.

Question 2

capacity

Answer 2

amount of information that can be held in a memory store at a given
time.

Question 3

duration

Answer 3

lengths of time information can be held in a memory store.

Question 4

STM

Answer 4

limited capacity memory store. Coding is mainly acoustic, capacity is 5 - 9 items on average, duration - 18 and 30 seconds.

Question 5

LTM

Answer 5

permanent memory store. Coding is mainly semantic, it has unlimited capacity and can store memories for up to a lifetime.

Question 6

Baddley - Coding

Answer 6

Aim - Research coding in STM + LTM.
Procedure - There were 4 sets of word lists - acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, semantically dissimilar. Participants recall order of word lists. done immediately to assess STM and after 20 minutes to assess LTM.
Findings - given list of acoustically similar words had worst recall. confused similar sounding words. given list of semantically similar words had worst recall. confused similar meaning words.

Question 7

Capacity in STM - Jacob

Answer 7

Aim - Research capacity of STM.
Procedure - Developed technique to measure digit span - how many items an indiv can remember, in sequence + repeat back in order.
Findings - Found mean span for digits across parti was 9.3 items. Found mean span for letters across parti was 7.3.
Conclusion - Memory can hold 7-9 items.

Question 8

Capacity in STM - miller

Answer 8

Aim - Research capacity of STM.
Procedure - Observed things come in 7s: days of week used digit span technique, but “chunked” items into groups e.g. words + sets of n.0.
Findings - Found people could recall 5 words, as well as they can recall 5 letters (via chunking).
Conclusion - Used the term “the magical number 7’ to describe the capacity of STM.

Question 9

Duration STM - PP

Answer 9

Aim - Research duration of STM.
Procedure - 24 students took part in 8 trials + given a consonant syllable and a three-digit number and asked to count backwards to prevent rehearsal.
On each trial, they were stopped after either 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds. the retention interval.
Findings - Found STM lasts about 18 sec after this very few people correctly recall consonant syllable.
Conclusion - It suggests STM may have a very short duration, unless it is rehearsed.

Question 10

Duration in LTM - barrick

Answer 10

Aim - Research duration of LTM.
Procedure - Tested recall of people, parti had gone to school with using photo recognition (50 photos from a person’s yearbook) and free recall (participants recalled all the names of their graduating class).
Findings - Found 90% accuracy for photo recognition for people who had graduated within 15 years and 60% accuracy for free recall. After 48 years, photo recognition recall was about 70% and 30% for free recall.
Conclusions - LTM lasts a very long time.

Question 11

nature of memory evalution

Answer 11

P - Bahrick et al’s study had high external validity.
E - used memories were part of real life eg. peers at school.
E - Using real-life meaningful memories means findings are more likely to accurately represent memory in real world.
I - However, confounding variables not controlled like some of Parti may have recently looked over their yearbook photos.

Question 12

Nature of memory evalution

Answer 12

P - Jacob’s study conducted a long time ago + early research such as this, often lacked control of extraneous variables.
E - eg, some participants may have been distracted.
E - This would reduce the validity of the findings.
I

Question 13

Nature of memory evalution

Answer 13

P - Baddeley’s study didn’t use meaningful material.
E - words used no personal meaning to participants.
E - When info is meaningful people will use semantic coding even in STM.

Question 14

Nature of memory evalution

Answer 14

P - PP study used artificial stimulus.
E - Consonant syllables/trigrams eg, YCG, BNT don’t reflect real life memory activities.
E - means study lacks external validity.

Question 15

Multi Store Memory model

Answer 15

representation of how memory works in terms of 3 stores called sensory register, STM + LTM. describes how into is transferred from 1 store to another, how it’s remembered + how itsforgotten.

Question 16

sensory register

Answer 16

memory stores for each of our five senses, such as vision (iconic store) and hearing (echoic store).
Coding in iconic sensory register is visual and in echoic sensory register it is auditory +capacity of sensory register is huge and info lasts for a very short time - less than half a second.

Question 17

MSM ao1

Answer 17

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
SR is info from senses is stored, but only for duration of approximately 1/2 before its forgotten. modality-specific
However, if attended to, sensory info moves into the STM for temporary storage, which is primarily encoded acoustically. Rehearsing info via rehearsal loop helps to retain info in STM, and consolidate it to LTM, which is predominantly encoded semantically.

Question 18

MSM Evalution

Answer 18

P - research into STM duration has low ecological validity as stimuli parti were asked to remember bear little resemblance to items learned in real life.
E - PP used nonsense trigrams such as ‘XQF’ to investigate STM duration.
E - This means findings regarding memory may be inaccurate when applied to “real-life” stimuli

Question 19

MSM Evalution

Answer 19

P - evidence to suggest diff types of LTM.
•E a Clive Wearing couldby recall what his children were doing with lives (semantic memory) but could remember how to walk + play piano (procedural memory).
E - view LTM is only 1 store is therefore not correct + overly simplified.

Question 20

MSM Evalution

Answer 20

P - MSM states what matters in rehearsal is amount of it that you do.
E - more you rehearse info, more likely it is transfer to LTM.
C - However, research suggests this prediction is wrong. Craik and Watkins found what really matters about rehearsal is type.
E - discovered 2 types of rehearsal, maintenance + elaborative. very serious limitation of MSM as it’s another research finding cant be explained by model.

Question 21

MSM Evalution

Answer 21

P - MSM was pioneering model of memory that inspired further research.
E - influential in creating other models of memory, like WMM, to deal with short comings of original model.
E - shows how important Atkinson’s + Shiffrin’s contribution to field of memory was.

Question 22

LTM - WWW

Answer 22

separated into :
- explicit ( inspected + consciously recalled)
- implicit (can’t be consciously recalled)

Question 23

Semantic Memory

Answer 23

• conscious recall of facts that have meaning as opposed to own life events
• explicit
• eg capital cities

Question 24

Episodic Memory

Answer 24

• events that can be reported from person’s life
• explicit
• eg fav xmas

Question 25

procedural Memory

Answer 25

- knowledge of tasks that usually doesn’t require conscious recall to perform them - implicit - eg walkingg

Question 26

LTM evaluation

Answer 26

P - clinical evidence to support view that there are diff types of LTM. E - HM could learn new procedural memories but not episodic or semantic mem. Got better at task eg drawing by looking at reflection in mirror but unable to recall doing it previously C - evidence demonstrates 1 store can be damaged but other stores are unaffected. I - However, there is a serious lack of control with brain damaged patients as can’t see what they like befor injury. Could b Ethan their mem structures don’t represent those of normal people

Question 27

LTM evalution

Answer 27

P - argument about whether episodic + semantic memory should be separate. E - psychologist disagree with Tulving's division of LTM into 3 types, instead arguing there should be 2 - declarative (semantic + episodic) vs. non-declarative (procedural). E - as its very difficult to separate episodic + semantic memory into completely separate types; also both stored in prefrontal cortex suggesting some similarity.

Question 28

LTM evalution

Answer 28

P - Identifying diff types of memory allows treatments to be developed. E - Belleville showed episodic memories could be improved in indiv who had mild cognitive impairment; trained parti performed better on test of episodic memory after training than control group. E - shows there real life applications to research into types of LTM.

Question 29

LTM evalution

Answer 29

P - evidence from brain scans to show diff types of memory are stored in diff parts of brain. E - Tulving found episodic + semantic memory recalled from prefrontal cortex (PFC) - however, left PFC was involved in semantic memories + right PFC for episodic memories. E - supports view there is a physical reality to diff types of LTM.

Question 30

WWM

Answer 30

representation of STM suggests STM is dynamic processor of diff types of info using sub-units coordinated by central decision-making system.

Question 31

Central executive

Answer 31

component of WMM that coordinates activities of 3 subsystems in memory. processes info in all sensory form but only able to deal w 1 strand of info at a time - limited capacity - deals w cog tasks like mental arithmetic

Question 32

Phonological Loop

Answer 32

- deals w auditory info. acoustic coding. - preserves info in order which it arrives - capacity is 2 sec worth of what said divided into : - articulatory process (inner voice) of language = allows maintenance rehearsal. Includes any language presented visually, then converted to phonological state, allows to repeat, sounds in a loop to keep in working memory. - Phonological store (inner ear) holds is auditory speech info + order which it was heard. Include any visually presented language, then converted by articulatory process. Keeps/ stores words heard

Question 33

Visuo Spatial sketchpad

Answer 33

- Stores + processes, visual and/or special info when required. - Capacity of 3/4 objects at 1 time divided into : - Visual cache = stores visual info about form + colour - Inner scribe = spatial relationship + arrangement of objects

Question 34

Episodic Buffer

Answer 34

- facilitates communication between components + LTM - seen as storage component of central executive - Limited capacity of 4 chunks - coding - modality free

Question 35

WWM Evalution

Answer 35

P - evidence comes from people w brain damage. E - Cases eg KF are used as evidence for model. E - evidence may not be reliable, it concerns unique patients who had unique traumatic experiences. may be performance of these brain damaged indiv is not same as that of someone w/out brain damage. I - Therefore must be cautious when generalising results to population.

Question 36

WWM Evalution

Answer 36

P - Cog psychologists suggest there is lack of clarity over central executive. E - argued this part of the model not really explained. E - Baddeley argued central executive was most important but least understood component. central executive needs to be more clearly specified than just being attentional process. I - means WMM has not been fully explained, + model is therefore limited as it’s incomplete.

Question 37

WWW Evalution

Answer 37

P - case studies,like Shallice and Warrington's study of patient KF who had suffered brain damage. E - After accident KF had difficulty with sounds but could recall letters + 3 digits. poor STM ability for verbal info but could process visual info normally. E - suggests his phonological loop had been damaged leaving other areas of memory intact. I - shows evidence to support existence of separate STM stores for visual + acoustic info.

Question 38

Proactive interference

Answer 38

- forgetting occurs when older mem disrupt recall of newer mem - degree of forgetting is greater when mem similar

Question 39

Retroactive interference

Answer 39

- forgetting occurs when Newer mem disrupt recall of older mem - degree of forgetting is greater when mem similar

Question 40

McGoech and McDonald

Answer 40

aim - discover if interference is Waze when memories similar Procedure – learn word list until recall with 100% accuracy and learn 2nd list. 6 groups of parti who each learned diff type of second list. parti’s were asked recall original list. Findings - when parti rescaled original list of word, performance depended on nature of 2nd list. synonyms produced worst recall. shows interference is strongest when mem r similar Conclusions - shows interference can apply to at least some everyday situat. more simple mem greater likelihood of forgetting increases

Question 41

interference evaluation

Answer 41

P - much greater chance that interference will be demonstrated in lab exper, than in real life, due to artificial nature of stimuli. E - Learning lists of words is common task in memory studies but it’s not same as trying to remember in everyday life like faces. E - limitation as supporting evidence for interference theory can’t be generalised to everyday situations. I - reduces validity of explanation.

Question 42

interference evaluation

Answer 42

P - research support for interference theory from everyday situations. E - Baddeley and Hitch asked rugby players to try to remember names of teams that they had played in a season, week by week. Most players miss out a game at some point, so ‘last team’ was diff for each player. E - results showed accurate recall didn’t depend on how long ago matches took place, but n.o of matches that had been played. E - l shows interference explanations can apply to at least some everyday situations. I - increases validity of explanation of forgetting.

Question 43

interference evaluation

Answer 43

P - Interference effects may be overcome by using cues. E - Tulving + Psotka gave parti 5 lists of 24 words, each list organised into 6 categories. The categories weren’t explicit, but there were 4 animal words next to each other eg. E - Recall for 1st list was about 70% but fell after each additional list to learn, due to interference. However, when parti were told names of categories, recall rose again to about 70%. I - shows interference of memories + thus forgetting can be reduced. limits explanatory power of theory.

Question 44

Golden and Baddeley

Answer 44

aim - to investigate cue dependant forgetting procedure - gave their parti a list of words either underwater/land. then asked to recall either LL, WW, WL, LW Findings - 2 of conditions the environ contexts of learning + recall matched, accurate recall was 40% higher than in non-matching conditions. Conclusion - extrernal cues available at learning help to trigger mem if they r also there at recall

Question 45

Carter and Cassidy

Answer 45

aim - to investigate state dependant forgetting Procedure - antihistamine drugs are given to their parti. mild sedative make people feel slightly drowsy, parti learn lists of words + passages of prose and then recall info when under influence of the drugs or in normal state Findings - creates internal psychological state diff from normal state of being awake + alert. in conditions where a mismatch between internal state at learning + recall, performance in mem test was significantly state Conclusions - if internal cues r absent, then more forgetting + less recall

Question 46

Tulving and Pearlstone

Answer 46

aim - to investigate importance of retrieval cues Procedure - gave parti lists do words to learn from various categories. parti were asked to recall words w or w/out category names Findings - who weren’t given category names recalled significantly fewer words than parti who were given them conclusion - cues r significant in recall

Question 47

Retrieval Failure Evaluation

Answer 47

P - impossible to test context dependent forgetting. E - In experiments where cue produces successful recall of word, assume cue must have been encoded at time of learning. If the cue doesn’t produce recall, assume it wasn’t encoded. E - However, these are assumptions. may mean that exper have low internal validity, i.e. they not actually testing context dependent forgetting. I - Reducing validity of supporting research, reduces validity of explanation for forgetting

Question 48

retrieval failure

Answer 48

form if forgetting. occurs when we don’t have necessary cues to access mem. mem available but not accessible unless suitable cue provided

Question 49

Cue

Answer 49

trigger of info. may be meaningful/indirectly linked by being encoded at time of learning. can be external/internal

Question 50

Encoding Specificity Principle

Answer 50

recall of info best when large overlap between info available at time of retrieval and info in mem trace Tulving reviewed research intro retrieval failure + found consistent pattern to findings. If cue needed to help recall info, must be present at encoding + retrieval

Question 51

Context dependant forgetting

Answer 51

retrieval cues based on context: situation/setting info encoded + retrieved refer to way in which info presented

Question 52

state dependant forgetting

Answer 52

mem will be best when persons physical/psychological state similar at encoding + retrieval.

Question 53

Eyewitness testimony

Answer 53

ability of people to remember details of events like accidents they have observed

Question 54

Misleading Info

Answer 54

incorrect info given to eyewitness usually after event. like leading q + post event discussion between co-witnesses and/or other people

Question 55

Leading Q

Answer 55

the way it phrased suggests a certain ans

Question 56

Post event discussion

Answer 56

occurs when more than 1 witness to an event . witness discuss what they seen w co witnesses/other people. repeat interviewing creates form of this. many influence accuracy of each witnesses recall of event

Question 57

Loftus and Palmer (1)

Answer 57

- Investigating effect of leading q on eyewitness testimony -45 student parti viewed short video of car accident. after watching video, each group given questionnaire bout accident. in critical q, describe how fast cars were travelling. 5 groups of parti, each given diff verb in critical q. smash - 40.8 and contact - 31.8

Question 58

Loftus and Palmer (2)

Answer 58

- investigate effects of leading q on later mem - 150 students parti (3 groups of 50) viewed short vid of car accident. after given questionnaire + critical q on how fast cars going when smashed into each other G1 asked q using hit, G2 smashed, G3 not asked. week later parti asked to return + and more q, like did u see broken glass. those parti thought car travelling (smashed group) were more likely to report seeing broken glass

Question 59

why do leading q affect ewt

Answer 59

response bias explanation suggest wording of q has no real effect on mem but influences how parti describe substitution explanation suggest wording of q can actually change parti mem ( L&P 2nd study)

Question 60

Gabbert

Answer 60

Aim - Investigated effect of post-event discussion on l accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Procedure - 60 students + 60 older adults recruited from local community participated. watched video of a girl stealing money from wallet, but filmed from diff points. parti tested individually (control group) or pairs (co-witness group) on recall. parti in co-witness group told they watched same video, but seen diff views of same crime + only 1 person had witnessed girl stealing. parti in co-witness group discussed crime together. All of parti completed questionnaire, testing mem of event. Findings - 71% of witnesses in co-witness group recalled info they hadmy actually seen. control group didn’t recall any info that they hadnt seen. Conclusion - results highlight issue of post-event discussion + powerful effect this can have on accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Question 61

Loftus and Palmer evaluation

Answer 61

P - Loftus+ Palmer’s research lacked mundane realism. E - task involved watching video of car crash. parti probs guessed they were going to be asked questions about vid. In everyday life don’t know you are going to be witness so may not be as aware of what is going on. E - emotion might be present during car crash won’t be there when watching vid. I - reduces validity of supporting evidence.

Question 62

Loftus and Palmer evaluation

Answer 62

P - Loftus + Palmer’s study lacked population validity. E - All of parti were university students. Students may not be experienced drivers, may impact on susceptibility to leading questions. E - results may not be generalisable to other groups eg.older + more experienced drivers. I- as these indiv may be less susceptible to leading questions because they might be a better judge of speed.

Question 63

Loftus and Palmer evaluation

Answer 63

P - Loftus + Palmer’s study had great deal of control. E - lab exper + therefore as of control of extraneous variables, we know only thing impacting on DV was IV. E - means verb in question impacts on rating of speed + memory of glass. I - Therefore, results have greater internal validity.

Question 64

Gabbert Evaluation

Answer 64

P - Gabbert’s research lacked mundane realism. E - task involved watching vid of a crime where money stolen from a wallet. parti probably guessed that they were going to be asked questions about vid. E - In everyday life you do not know that you are going to be a witness so you may not be as aware of what is going on. emotion might be present during real crime such as a robbery won’t be there when watching a video. I - This reduces the validity of this supporting evidence.

Question 65

Gabbert Evaluation

Answer 65

P - Gabbert’s research increased population validity E - study used 2 diff populations – students + older adults. E - l results between 2 groups similar.suggests people of all ages equally impacted by post event discussion. I - results are able to be applied to more people.

Question 66

Gabbert Evaluation

Answer 66

P - great deal of control. E - lab exper + due to control of extraneous variables, know only thing impacting on DV was IV. E - This means that post-event discussion can change people’s memories of the event. I - Therefore, the results have greater internal validity.

Question 67

Misleading info Evaluation

Answer 67

P - practical applications of research into misleading info. E - Geiselman + colleagues designed cog interview to ensure police officers don’t leading questions. E - means memory retrieval is more accurate. I - innocent people less likely to be convicted of crime they didn’t commit based on eyewitness testimony.

Question 68

Misleading info evaluation

Answer 68

P - Research into misleading info uses artificial tasks. E - Loftus and Palmer got parti to watch a video of a car crash. a very different experience from witnessing a real accident, which reduces external validity of findings. E - means research into this area may tell us very little about how leading questions impact eyewitness testimony in cases of real accidents or crimes.

Question 69

misleading info evaluation

Answer 69

P - research into misleading info shows impact on accuracy of EWTthis may not be true in the real world. E - parti in an EWT study usually know they are in study. They know that, no matter how serious or horrific incident, ans they give won’t have any significant effects. E - In real world, eyewitness testimony could have serious + far-reaching consequences so misleading info may have less of an impact on accuracy of EWT. I - Therefore, lab studies into misleading information may underestimate accuracy of EWT as a result of the lack of consequence, reducing their external validity.

Question 70

Cognitive Interview

Answer 70

integrated effective memory recall techniques into new questioning methodology to achieve more detailed + accurate eyewitness testimonies

Question 71

Cognitive Interview 4 stepss

Answer 71

- report everything = recall everything even if trivial or don’t think important, improve accuracy of recall altogether and allows no missed out detail - reinstate context = reinstate external + internal context, eliminates chances of state + context dependant retrieval failure. acts as cue to recall - reverse order = recall events forwards + backwards, verify accuracy and revise people reporting experience/fully lying bout experiences - change perspective = try + recall from diff persons pov, promotes view of event to enhance recall. disrupts effects of expectations + schemes on recall

Question 72

ECI

Answer 72

-!Fischer et al (1987) developed some additional elements of cog interview to focus on social dynamics of interaction. eg, interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact + when to relinquish it. - includes ideas like reducing eyewitness anxiety

Question 73

CI Evaluation

Answer 73

- time consuming. - eg, more time needed to establish rapport with witness + allow them to relax. - interview technique therefore takes up more resources than standard police interview. - police may be more reluctant to use cog interview.

Question 74

CI Evaluation

Answer 74

an increase in inaccurate information. •Kohnken et al. (1999) found an 81% increase of correct information, but a 61% increase of incorrect information when the enhanced cognitive interview was compared to a standard interview. •This suggests that the cognitive and enhanced cognitive interviews should be used carefully as although they increase the amount of accurate information, they are also producing inaccurate information. •This reduces the effectiveness of the cognitive interview and its application in the real world.

Question 75

CI Evaluation

Answer 75

particularly helpful if interviewees are older. •Mello and Fisher (1996) found that the cognitive interview produced significantly more information for older participants. This may be because older adults are overly cautious about reporting information if they feel they are wasting time, but the cognitive interview places an importance on reporting everything. •This suggests that the cognitive interview is more effective for older people, in comparison to younger people.

Question 76

anxiety

Answer 76

state of emotional and physical arousal. The emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension. Physical changes include an increased heart rate and sweatiness.

Question 77

Neg impact

Answer 77

Loftus proposed the ‘weapon focus effect’, which suggests that the anxiety caused as a result of witnessing a weapon focuses the attention away from potential perpetrators and reduces the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Question 78

Neg impact study

Answer 78

Johnson and Scott (1976) They invited participants to a laboratory where they were told to wait in the reception area. A receptionist who was seated nearby excused herself to run an errand, leaving the participant alone. The experiment used an independent groups design, as participants were then exposed to one of two conditions: • In the ‘no-weapon’ condition, participants overheard an argument in the laboratory. Thereafter an individual (the target) left the laboratory and walk past the participant holding a pen, with his hands covered in grease. • In the ‘weapon’ condition, participants overheard the same argument and the sound of breaking glass. This was followed by an individual (the target) walking into the reception area, holding a bloodied letter opener. Both groups were then shown 50 photographs and asked to identify the person who had left the laboratory. The participants were informed that the suspect may or may not be present in the photographs. Those who had witnessed the man holding a pen correctly identified the target 49% of the time, compared to those who had witness the man holding a knife, who correctly identified the target 33% of the time. Loftus claimed that the participants who were exposed to the knife had higher levels of anxiety and were more likely to focus their attention on the weapon and not the face of the target, a phenomenon known as the weapon focus effect. Therefore, the anxiety associated with seeing a knife reduces the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Question 79

pos impact study

Answer 79

Yuille and Cutshall conducted a study into a real-life shooting. The shop owner shot a thief dead. There were 21 witnesses, 13 agreed to take part. The interviews happened 4-5 months after the incident and were compared to the original EWT interviews to the police at the time of the shooting. Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account. The witnesses also rated their stress levels at the time of the incident on a 7-point scale and asked if they had any emotional problems since the event. The witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount of accuracy after 5 months. Those participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate. About 88% compare to 75% for the less-stressed group. This suggests that anxiety can improve the accuracy of EWT.

Question 80

Anxiety Evalution

Answer 80

ethical issues to consider in this area of research. •Creating anxiety in participants by creating lab experiments is risky and potentially unethical as it could subject people to psychological harm purely for the purposes of research. •This does not challenge the findings of research such as Johnson and Scott’s, but it does question the need for such research. •This is especially the case when real-life studies can be used where psychologists interview people who have already witnessed an event, although it may be distressing to ask participants to re-live this.

Question 81

Anxiety Evalution

Answer 81

Field studies can sometimes lack control. •Researchers usually interview real-life eyewitnesses sometime after the event for example in Yuille and Cutshall’s study. The researchers have no control over discussions with other people about the event, accounts they may have read or seen in the media etc. (i.e., post event discussion). •It is possible that these extraneous variables may be responsible for the accuracy of recall. •This reduces the validity of the findings provided in this area in relation to anxiety and the positive impact that it can have on recall.

Question 82

Anxiety Evalution

Answer 82

real-world applications of this research. •Understanding the effect of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT could help to determine the credibility of a witness. We now know that there is an optimal level of anxiety which will produce maximum accuracy. •The findings of research in this area are useful for those responsible for questioning witnesses.

Question 83

Anxiety Evaluation

Answer 83

inverted-U explanation only focuses on the physiological aspects of anxiety. •It says that it is the physical changes to the body and brain during stressful incidents that affect the accuracy of EWT. •Anxiety is more complex than this and has many components including a cognitive element. The theory ignores these. •It is possible that anxiety might have a different effect on EWT than the one predicted by the theory.