Forensics Flashcards
(255 cards)
1
Q
What is offender profiling?
A
A technique that uses information about a crime, a crime scene and a victim in order to compose a profile of the unknown perpetrator
2
Q
What can be taken from a crime scene?
A
Hard evidence such as saliva blood stains, semen
3
Q
According to offender profiling what can be other clues at the crime scene?
A
The location, the choice of victim, the nature of the assault, the time, what was said to the victim, the weapon used and the wound
4
Q
What does offender profiling explore?
A
The links between what goes on at the crime scene and the type of person that commits a crime
5
Q
Why was offender profiling devised?
A
To help narrow down the search for serial offenders
6
Q
What does offender profiling allow police to do?
A
to interview suspects with the profile before other suspects
7
Q
What is the bottom up approach?
A
An approach that attempts to generate a picture of the offender, such as what they could look like, regular behaviour, social background by collecting detailed analysis of crime scene
8
Q
What are the two parts to the bottom up approach?
A
Investigative psychology and geographical profiling
9
Q
What is investigative psychology?
A
The process of applying statistical procedures alongside psychological theory to analyse the chrome scene evidence
10
Q
What is the aim in investigative psychology?
A
To establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur across crime scenes in order to help develop a statistical database which can then be used as a comparison
11
Q
Why is the database useful?
A
As when offence occurs the details can be matched against the database which allows investigators to go directly to the nearest match and catch them sooner preventing more crime
12
Q
What are the key features of the bottom up approach?
A
1) the way that an offender behaves at the crime scene can reflect how the offender behaves in every day life
2) The evidence taken away or left (finger prints) can imply if the offender has previously committed crimes
3)
13
Q
Who conducted a study to support investigative psychology?
A
Canter and Heritage
14
Q
What was Canter and Heritage’s study aim?
A
To study patterns of behaviour in serial offenders
15
Q
What was Canter and Heritages procedure?
A
They conducted a meta analysis of 66 sexual assault cases. The computer program identified correlation across patterns of behaviour.
16
Q
What was Canter and Heritage’s results?
A
Particular behaviour was seen as common in most cases such as impersonal language and lack of reaction to the victim
17
Q
What was Canter and Heritage’s conclusion?
A
The patterns of these behaviours can be specific to individuals and help identity whether offences were committed by the same person
18
Q
What is geographical profiling?
A
the Study of spatial behaviour and relation to crime and offenders that involves generalising from the locations of linked criminal scenes which can give clues to the likely home or base of the offender
19
Q
What does offender profiling assume?
A
The offenders choose to operate in areas they know well
20
Q
What are marauders?
A
Individuals who commit crimes in their own area
21
Q
What are commuters?
A
Individuals who travel to commit their crimes
22
Q
What is the geographical approach based on?
A
Bartlett’s schema theory
23
Q
What is Barlett’s schema theory assume?
A
That people stole mental schemes which organised units of knowledge which creates a mental map of an area - persons mental map is unique and reflects their own experiences
24
Q
How do mental maps benefit psychologists?
A
They can learn about the criminal from the individual map, and the pattern of offending is likely to form a circle around their usual residence
25
What case study supports the bottom down approach?
John Duffy (railway rapist) case study from David Canter
26
What is the John Duffy case study?
1980 John Duffy carried out 24 sexual attacks in three murders on women near railway stations in North London.
27
How did David canter use geographical profiling to charge John Duffy?
Can analysed geographical information from the crime scenes and combined this with details of similar attacks in the past supplied by police. In doing so, Canter was able to draw up a profile of Duffy which was surprisingly accurate and led to his eventual arrest and conviction. - the geographical profiling that the police and the surveillance of his enabled them to collect enough evidence to arrest him
28
What are three things on Canter's profile of John Duffy?
1) Lives in Kilburn
2) Marriage problems
3) Unattractive
29
What are three true facts about John Duffy?
1) Lived in Kilburn
2) Separated
3) Had acne
30
What was John Duffys case the first attempt of?
Is profile represented the first attempt to use behavioural characteristics to search for a criminal instead of purely for forensic evidence from the crime scene
31
Whose study supports the use of geographical profiling?
Lundrigan
32
What was Lundrigan's aim?
To study the mental map of 120 serial murders in the USA
33
What was Lundrigan's procedure?
For each offender, the researchers analyse distance between offenders home and body disposal site
34
What was Lundrigan's results?
1) offenders home was geographically central
2) Location of each displays of site tended to be in a different direction to the previous disposal site
35
What was Lundrigan's conclusion?
Geographical analysis may be useful in locating an offenders home
36
What is my first limitation of the bottom - up profiling approach?
A limitation of the bottom-up profiling approach is that its success depends on accurate and detailed records within criminal databases, which may sometimes be unreliable.
37
What is my counterpoint to my first evaluation for the bottom up profiling approach?
However, advancements in technology have significantly improved the accuracy and accessibility of criminal databases
38
What is my first strength of the bottom up profiling approach?
A strength of the bottom-up profiling approach is that it has been successfully applied to numerous real-life cases, improving its reliability and validity.
39
What is my second limitation of the bottom of profile approach?
A limitation of the bottom-up profiling approach is that criminals may gain insight into geographical profiling techniques and use this knowledge to avoid being caught.
40
What is the top down approach?
A method where pre-determined theories or ideas are applied to crime scene data.
41
In the top down approach, what is there an emphasis on?
The characteristics of criminals
42
Why is the top-down approach also called the American approach?
It was developed by Robert Ressler from the FBI’s Behavioural Sciences Unit in the 1970s.
43
How did the FBI first develop the categorise of the top down approach?
From case studies and Interviews with 36 violent offenders who were sexually motivated, including serial killers like Charles Manson and Ted Bundy.
44
What key topics were covered in the interviews with offenders?
Planning of murders, execution, killer’s thoughts, fantasies about killing, and activities between murders.
45
How does the FBI use the top-down approach in offender profiling?
By analysing crime scenes to determine if the offender fits the organised or disorganised typology.
46
What are four organised crime scene characteristics?
Planed their crimes, victims targeted, element of control is important, likely to bring weapons or restraints to the scene
47
What are three disorganised crime scene characteristics?
Impulsive or commit in a moment of passion, carried out unplanned attacks, made no attempts to conceal the bodies the blood the semen or a weapon
48
What are four likely personality and behaviour characteristics of an organised offender?
Average IQ or a high IQ, social and sexually competent and had intimate partners, likely to be employed, leads an ordered life
49
What are four likely personality and behaviour characteristics of an disorganised offender?
Sexually and socially inadequate, lives alone near to the crime scene, more likely to be unemployed, frightened and confused at the time of the attack
50
When I top down approach was taken what happened when a crime was committed?
The police can then state that they were going to look for a particular hyper person and this would narrow down the search
51
Whose study supports the top down approach to profiling?
Canter
52
What was the aim of Canter study of the investigation on organised and disorganised theory?
To test the validity of organised/disorganised types
53
What was the procedure of Canter study of the investigation on organised and disorganised theory?
A content analysis of 100 murderers in the USA each committed by different serial killer. Each case of analysed for typical disorganised/organised characteristics. For example whether there was torture or restrain whether there was an attempt to conceal the body the form of murder weapon used and the cause of death.
54
What were the results of Canter study of the investigation on organised and disorganised theory?
A subset of organised characteristics was found to be typical of the most serial killers, including the body being left in an isolated spot and the use of restraint
55
What was the conclusion of Canter study of the investigation on organised and disorganised theory?
They study provide support for the top down approach to profiling
56
What is the strength of the top down approach?
A strength of the top-down approach is that it enables psychologists to narrow down the search for a criminal by identifying certain individuals first.
57
What is a limitation that counter argues my strength of the top down approach?
A limitation of the top-down approach is that the distinction between organised and disorganised offenders may be an oversimplification.
58
What is my second limitation of the top down approach?
A limitation of the top-down approach is that it was initially based on the analysis of just 36 U.S. criminals, which is a limited sample.
59
What is my first limitation for profiling for the both types?
A main limitation of profiling is that it is only appropriate for a small number of highly specific crimes, usually those stemming from psychopathology, such as rape, paedophilia, and torture.
60
What is my second limtiation for profiling for the both types?
Another limitation of profiling is that, although it can be useful, it is important not to be blinded to other possibilities.
61
What is my final discussion point for profiling for the both types?
Although profiling is a relatively new area of psychology and still faces several challenges, some believe it can be a useful tool in criminal investigations.
62
What theory is used in the psychological explanation of offending behaviour?
Eysencks theory of criminal personality
63
What is the personality theory?
The theory the personality varies across two dimensions, introvert, extrovert, and neurotic to stable
64
What did Esyneck suggest could Measure the personality dimensions?
Using an EPI eysnecks personality inventory
65
Who was the EPI?
A questionnaire with a large number of questions to which respondent must answer either yes or no
66
What are two introvert characteristics?
Quiet and reserved
67
What are two extrovert characteristics?
Sociable and lively
68
What are two neurotic characteristics?
Changeable and impulsive
69
What are two stable characteristics?
Calm and reliable
70
What are two psychotic characteristics?
Cold and heartless
71
What is an example of how a question on the EPI would start?
I am very…
72
What did Esyneck suggest the criminal personality type is?
Neurotic extrovert
73
What are extrovert seek and why?
Seek excitement because the nervous system is under aroused in an area in the bone that we refer to is RAS.
74
Why are extrovert personality types linked to criminal behaviour?
This means the extrovert will seek excitement and take risks which may lead to criminal behaviour
75
How did Esyneck view criminal behaviour?
As a developmentally immature and is selfish and concerned with immediate verification
76
What is the process of socialisation and how is it linked to criminal personality?
Socialisation is the process by which children learn to become more able to delay gratification and become more socially oriented. During this process, children are taught to follow societal rules and behaviours. When children act immaturely or antisocially, they are punished, which creates an association between anxiety and antisocial behaviour. This anxiety deters the child from repeating such behaviour. If the socialisation process is successful, it prevents the development of a criminal personality by helping the child avoid antisocial actions due to the anxiety associated with them. Believe the people with high extroverted scores and neurotic scores had a nervous system that made them difficult to condition
77
Who conducted research to support theory of criminal personality?
McGurk and McDougall
78
What was McGurk and McDougall aim?
To look at the link between criminal and personality type
79
What was McGurk and McDougall method?
They looked at 100 delinquent students and 100 non-delinquent students that completed the EPI and comparisons on extrovert and neuroticism schools were made
80
What was McGurk and McDougall results?
Delinquent group had a higher score in psychoticism extroversion and neuroticism
81
What was McGurk and McDougall conclusion?
There is a link between personality type and delinquent behaviour
82
What is the strength of Esynecks theory of the criminal personality?
A strength of the theory of criminal personality is that it is testable using the (EPI), which generates quantitative data, allowing for the comparison of criminals and non-criminals.
83
What is the counter argument and a limitation for Esynecks theory of the criminal personality?
However, a counter-argument is that there are issues with the ability of the EPI test, particularly regarding its reliance on self-report.
84
What is my second limitation of Esynecks theory of the criminal personality?
Additionally, another limitation of Eysenck's theory of the criminal personality is that some researchers have suggested that the environmental stimulation sought by individuals may be due to boredom rather than extraversion.
85
What does the biological explanation assume about criminal behaviour?
The premises if an individual has certain characteristics such as aggressive tendencies, then they will be more likely to be involved in crime
86
What is the historical approach (biological explanation) know as?
Atavistic form
87
Who theorised the atavistic form and what did he state?
Lombroso, stated that criminal was inherited and the individuals Born criminal could be identified by physical features which confirmed them as a criminal
88
What did Lombroso suggest about the biological distinct group of born criminals?
But they would show primitive characteristics and had a primitive genetic form that include savage and untame traits that helped them to survive in the wild - not suited to civilised society
89
What were some of the features of a criminal according to the atavistic form?
Narrow sleeping brow, large ears, extra toes and fingers, strong prominent jaw
90
According to the activistic form, what were murderers described as looking like?
Bloodshot eyes, curly hair, and long ears
91
How did Lombroso characterise particular types of criminals?
In terms of the physical and facial characteristics
92
What was Lombroso's research to support the activistic form theory?
Examined the facial and cranial features of hundreds of Italian convicts both living and dead. He then propose the activistic form was associated with the number of physical anomilies which were key indicators of criminality
93
What did Lombroso's research suggest?
He suggested that approximately 40% of criminals were born with a criminal instinct
94
What is the strength of the atavistic form theory?
A key strength of Lombroso’s atavistic form theory is that it was one of the first attempts to apply scientific methods to the study of criminal behaviour.
95
What is the first limitation of the atavistic form theory?
However, a significant limitation of Lombroso’s atavistic form theory is that it had strong racial undertones, which have been widely criticised.
96
What is the second limitation of the atavistic form theory?
Another major limitation of Lombroso’s atavistic form theory is that facial features can be influenced by environmental factors, rather than being an indicator of criminality.
97
What does the genetic explanation for criminal behaviour suggest?
that if an individual inherit a gene or combination of genes it can lead to a genetic predisposition for criminal behaviour
98
How does DNA linl to the criminal behaviour?
DNA produces instructions for general physical features of an organism such as an eyecolour and also specific physical features such as neurotransmission levels. These may impact on the psychological features such as intelligence and mental disorders.
99
Who conducted research into the genetic explanation for criminal behaviour?
Christiansen
100
What was Christiansen 's study and what did he find?
He studied 3520 pairs in Denmark and found a 52 concordance rate for criminality for monozygotic twins compared to 22% for dizygotic twins
101
What was concluded from Christiansen study for the genetic explaination?
He gave support to genetics as an explanation for criminal behaviour. Monozygotic twins share the same genetic code and therefore if we find a high concordance of a particular behaviour in money as psychotic twins this gives the evidence for genetics. The environmental factors all controlled and therefore the only difference in the two types of twins is genetics
102
Who conducted a study for the genetic explanation looking at the MAOA gene and the CDH -13 Gene?
Tiihonen
103
What did Tiihonen study show?
He revealed abnormalities on two genes that may be associated with violent crime the MAOAG which controls dopamine and serotonin in the brain has been linked to aggressive behaviour and the CDH 13 Jenna that has been linked to substance abuse and attention deficit disorder, so therefore they're more likely to get in trouble
104
What are some statistics from Tiihonen study?
4-10% offenders have these genes, in the study, the ones that were categories is extremely violent having committed many murders all had these gene combination
105
What is the first limitation of the genetic explanation of criminal behaviour?
A key limitation of the genetic explanation of criminal behavior is the debate over whether criminality is biologically determined or influenced by free will.
106
What is the second limitation of the genetic explanation of criminal behaviour?
Another limitation of the genetic theory of criminal behaviour is that it overlooks the influence of environmental factors.
107
What is a strength of the genetic explanation of criminal behaviour?
A strength of the genetic explanation of criminal behavior is the evidence provided by twin studies, which show a high concordance rate for criminal behavior among identical twins.
108
What is the neural explanation of criminal behaviour?
focuses on the neural differences in the brain of criminals and non-non-criminals particularly with antisocial personality disorder (associated with lack of emptahy)
109
What research focuses on neural differences in the brains of criminals?
Research has focused on neural differences in criminals, particularly those with Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)
110
What role does the prefrontal cortex play in criminal behaviour?
regulates emotional behavior, impulse control, and decision-making. Reduced activity in this region may result in difficulty controlling impulses and a lack of guilt or remorse.
111
Who researched the pre-frontal cortex for criminal behaviour?
Raine
112
What was Raines research on the prefrontal cortex?
Use brain scanning techniques and found the individuals with antisocial personalities have reduced anxiety in the prefrontal cortex.
113
What did Raines research on the prefrontal cortex conclude about criminals behaviour?
It meant that criminals find it difficult to control their impulses and do not suffer guilt or remorse
114
What did Raine additionally find from his brain scans of individuals with APD?
He found an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter and this contains most of the brains neuonal cell bodies
115
What role do mirror neurons play in empathy and criminal behaviour?
they are responsible for empathy - mirror of other peoples emotions
116
What's a mirror neurons imply about individuals of APD?
Some research suggests that criminals with APD can experience empathy, but less often. Their empathy response activates when they are asked to empathise with a person shown experiencing pain.
117
How is the amygdala linked to criminal behaviour?
The amygdala, part of the brain's limbic system, is involved in processing memory, decision-making, and emotions (such as fear, aggression, and anxiety). Differences in the amygdala have been linked to criminal behaviour.
118
What role does the amygdala play in emotions and decision-making?
The amygdala is crucial in processing emotions like fear, aggression, and anxiety, and it also plays a key role in decision-making.
119
Who conducted research to support that differences in the amygdala could be linked to criminal behaviour?
Raine
120
What was Raines aim for the support of the amygdala linking to criminal behaviour?
To examine fair conditioning, which is dependent on the Aygdalaa function in a group of 1700-year-olds
121
What was Raines procedure for the support of the amygdala linking to criminal behaviour?
The researchers put electrodes on the children's figures were repeatably playing two tones one that was followed by a loud unpleasant sound and another that was played alone. Subsequently, the difference in sweat responses to each tone by itself you did a measure of each toddlers fair conditioning.
20 years later the team identified participants who had gone to commit crimes in compared them with non-criminal counterparts matching them on gender and social adversity
122
What was Raines results for the support of the amygdala linking to criminal behaviour?
They found that those children who were on to commit crimes simply failed to demonstrate fair conditioning. In other words they were fearless when most of us would be faithful
123
What was Raines conclusion for the support of the amygdala linking to criminal behaviour?
This finding suggests the deficits in the amygdala which are indirectly identifiable as early as age 3 predisposed to crime at age 23
124
What is the first limitation of the neural explanation?
A limitation of the neural explanation of criminal behaviour is that it is often criticised for being over simplistic.
125
What is the second limitation of the neural explanation?
Another limitation of the neural explanation of criminal behaviour is that it suggests behaviour is predetermined by biology, which raises concerns about free will and personal responsibility.
126
What is the third limitation of the neural explanation?
Another limitation of the neural explanation of criminal behaviour is that it is difficult to establish cause and effect due to the correlational nature of much of the research into neural factors.
127
What was three parts of the biological explanation of criminal behaviour?
Activistic form theory, genetic explanation, neural explanation.
128
What is the cognitive explanation of criminal behaviour?
129
Who suggested we have levels of moral reasoning and what are they?
Kohlberg, suggested that peoples decisions and judgements on the issues of right and wrong can be summarised into a stage theory of moral development
130
What are the stages of moral development suggest?
The higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning.
131
What did Kolberg faced his stages of moral development theory on?
Peoples responses to a series of moral dilemma such as the Hinds dilemma
132
What are many studies show about criminals a level of moral reasoning?
Many studies seem to suggest that criminals tend to show a lower level of more reasoning
133
What level of moral reasoning are criminals more likely to be classified compared to non crimials.
The preconventional level where non-criminals have generally progressed to the conventional level
134
What is the stage one in the moral development?
Preconventional morality - obedience and punishment orientation
135
What stage of the moral development are criminals most likely to be in?
stage 1 - obedience and punishment orientation
136
What does the preconventional level involve?
I need to avoid punishment in game rewards and is associated with less mature childlike reasoning
137
What is stage 6 in moral development?
Post conventional morality - universal principles
138
What did Kohlberg suggest about adults who reasoned at this level?
Just that they make me cry if they can get away with it or game rewards from it in the form of money or respect
139
What was the Heinz dilemma?
140
Who conducted research that supports the levels of reasoning?
Palmer and Hollin
141
What was Palmer and Hollins research to support the level of moral reasoning?
Compared moral reasoning between non-offenders and convicted individuals. They used a measurement containing 11 moral dilemma related questions such as not taking things that belong to others or keeping a promise to a friend. The delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-delinquent group.
142
What are cognitive distortions?
Errors or biases and peoples information processing systems shown by faulty thinking
143
What can be an example of one cognitive distortion?
Hostile attribution bias
144
What is a hostile attribution bias?
When an action triggered the violent outburst for example the light of violence is associated with tendencies and misinterpret the actions of other people to assume they're being confrontational when they are not offenders may misread being confrontational as non-aggressive cues such as being stared at which would trigger violence
145
Who conducted evidence to support the offenders were more likely to perceive images as angry?
Schonenberg and Justye
146
What was Schonenberg and Justye study and what did they find?
They presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. When compared with non-aggressive match control group, the violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the images as hostile.
147
What is the second type of cognitive distortion?
Minimalisation
148
What is Minimalisation in criminals?
What is an offender attempts to denial? Play down the seriousness of an offence?
149
What criminals are most likely to show minimalisation?
Individuals who commit sexual crimes
150
Who conducted research into mineralisation?
Kennedy and Grubin
151
What was Kennedy and Grubin study?
In a study interviewing 102 males convicted of sex offences they found a large number of convicted sex offenders admitted their offences but denied causing harm to their victims. Son tend to blame the victim or third-party such as their own spouse there by minimising their involvement.
152
What is the second limitation of the cognitive explanation for criminal behaviour?
A limitation of cognitive theories of criminal behaviour is that they often fail to explain why the criminal behaviour occurs, focusing instead on describing the thought processes behind it.
152
What is the first limitation of the cognitive explanation of criminal behaviour?
A limitation of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is that the level of moral reasoning may depend on the type of offence committed, as different types of crimes may involve different forms of reasoning.
153
What is a strength for cognitive explanation on criminal behaviour?
A strength of the cognitive explanation of criminal behaviour is that cognitive treatments have been successfully used in the rehabilitation of offenders.
154
What is differential association theory?
The theory suggests that individuals learn their values, attitudes techniques and motives for criminal behaviour through associating and interacting with different peo
155
How has differential association theory in linked to social learning theory?
As if they spend their time with particular individuals, they will be influenced and associate themselves with those individuals
156
Who tried to develop a set of specific principles that could explain types of offending and the conditions which are said to cause crime?
Edwin Sutherland
157
According to differential association how is behaviour acquired?
A quiet in the same way as any other behaviour through the process of learning
158
According to differential association when does criminal learning occur?
Through interaction with significant others that the child associates with
159
According to differential association, what two factors increase criminality?
First factor learned attitudes towards crime for example feeling it is a good idea to carry a knife. Second factor learning of specific acts, e.g. carrying a knife in the park at night
160
According to differential association theory, what happens if the number of pro criminal attitudes outweigh the number of anti-criminal attitudes?
They will go onto offend
161
What does differential association suggest about predictability of criminal behaviour?
They should be mathematically predictable for how likely it is that an individual will commit a crime if we know the frequency intensity and duration of which they've been exposed to deviant and non-norms and value
162
Who conducted research to support differential association theory?
Farrington
163
What was Farringtons aim for studying delinquent development?
To investigate the causes of offending in males
164
What was Farringtons method for studying delinquent development?
He used a longitude study over several years and looked at the development of offending in 411 males. Began when they were eight years old and living in a working class deprived in a city area of London. The study followed them until they were 50 and looked at both officially recorded convictions and self reported offending.
165
What were Farringtons results for studying delinquent development?
41% were convicted of at least one offence between the ages of 10 and 50
Average conviction career lasted from 19 to 28 and an average conviction was five years
Most important risk factors at age 8 to 10 for later offending were measures of family criminal, risk taking low school, attainment poverty and poor parenting
166
What was Farringtons conclusion for studying delinquent development?
It supports differential association theory as the risk factors of family criminality lead to crime.
167
What is the limitation of differential association theory?
A limitation of the Differential Association Theory is that it is difficult to scientifically test and measure, especially when trying to quantify the number of pro-criminal attitudes an individual has been exposed to.
168
What is a second strength of differential association theory?
A strength of Differential Association Theory is that it can account for criminal behaviour across all sectors of society, not just specific social classes.
168
What is a first strength of differential association theory
can account for why so many criminals reoffend once released from prison - inside inmates will learn techniques from experienced criminals
169
What is the psychodynamic explanation of criminal behaviour?
suggests that criminal behaviour stems from unconscious conflicts, often due to childhood trauma or an imbalance between the id, ego, and superego. An underdeveloped or overactive superego may fail to control impulses, leading to crime.
170
What are the four super ego problems?
1) Inadequate superego
2) Weak superego
3) Deviant superego
4) Over-harsh superego
171
What is an inadequate super ego and how would it cause criminal behaviour?
What a super ego doesn't develop fully. The four theory would predict that offending behaviour is due to an imbalance between the ego and super ego. The super ego is not effective and it is not properly controlled
172
What is a weak super ego and how would it cause criminal behaviour?
Absence of the same-sex parent in the phallic stage so the child does not have an opportunity to identify the same-sex parent and internal parents moral code. The child therefore grows up without a clear idea of what is right and what is wrong
173
What is a deviant super ego and how would it cause criminal behaviour?
The same expert with whom the child identifies has immoral values
174
What is an over-harsh super ego and how would it cause criminal behaviour?
An excessively powerful super ego would render a person anxious and guilty much of the time since every time they acted on the its desires however they're super ego would punish them for it. This could result in a person committing crimes in order to get caught and punished to get rid of the guilt imposed by their own super ego.
175
What are the id problems that can lead to criminal behaviour?
Overdeveloped id
176
What is an overdeveloped id and how does it lead to criminal behaviour?
An overdeveloped id means the aggressive instinct is too powerful, driving the individual to seek instant pleasure or gratification while disregarding the concerns of others. This lack of empathy can lead to criminal behaviour, as the person focuses on their own desires above social rules or morals.
177
What are the three defence mechanisms for criminal behaviour?
Denial, rationalisation and displacement
178
What is denial - and an example using criminal behaviour?
Refusing to believe an unpleasant event is happening because to acknowledge it would be too disturbing for example serial murderer may refuse to recognise the severity of the crimes
179
What is rationalisation - and an example using criminal behaviour?
Explain unacceptable behaviour in irrational way for example a rapist may say a woman dress provocatively she should be taught a lesson
180
According to the psychodynamic explanation of criminal behaviour how does maternal deprivation influence criminal behaviour?
Psychodynamic psychologists suggest that maternal deprivation in the early years can lead to delinquency and criminal behaviour. Without a continuous loving relationship with the mother, the child may develop a personality type called affectionless psychopathy, where they lack empathy for their victims. This deprivation can also impair the development of the superego, making it harder for the child to internalise moral values.
180
What is displacement - and an example using criminal behaviour?
An individual takes out his anger on a substitute object therefore a person who is angry with his wife may attack stranger in the street
181
Who conducted research to support the maternal reputation can be the cause of criminal behaviour?
John Bowlbys Maternal Deprivation theory
182
What was John Bowlby's method for the maternal deprivation study?
He interviewed 44 juvenile fees asked them about themselves their behaviour and childhood experiences. He also interviewed members of their families about the family history. A control group of non delinquents was used for comparison.
183
What was John Bowlby's results for the maternal deprivation study?
14 of the sample showed personality behavioural characteristics that could be classified as affection as psychopathy. Of this 1412 has experienced prolonged separation from their mothers during infancy. In the non-criminal group only two had experienced early separation.
184
What was John Bowlby's conclusion for the maternal deprivation study?
Bowlby concluded the delinquency is linked to early maternal deprivation. This links to the psychodynamic explanation as the child has not had the opportunity to develop an adequate ego due to the separation with the parent.
185
What is the first limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of criminal behaviour?
A limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of criminal behaviour is the lack of sufficient research and the difficulty in measuring abstract concepts such as the superego and id.
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What is the second limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of criminal behaviour?
Another limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of criminal behaviour is that the idea of an over-harsh superego is difficult to support.
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What is the third limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of criminal behaviour?
Another limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of criminal behaviour is that it focuses primarily on both environmental factors within the home and innate instincts, while neglecting the role of wider society in the development of offending behaviour.
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What are the four aims of custodial sentencing?
incapacitation, rehabilitation, retribution, deterrence.
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What is incapacitation?
When the offender is prevented from offending as he has looked away and the public is protected
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What is retribution?
This is punishment for the crime. The offender deserves to spend time in prison and society once the individual looked up for their crimes.
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What is rehabilitation?
When the criminal is changed so that they become a law abiding citizen when the sentence is over this can occur through treatment program such as drug rehab education and anger management
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What is deterrence?
This means that the threat of the prison will deter any individual not to offend this works for individuals who have never committed a crime and also for prisoners who may not reoffend once released
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What is recidivism?
the tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend.
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What can recidivism be used for?
To measure how successful custodial or non-custodial sentences are
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What are the recidivism rates like now?
Unfortunately, statistics show recidivism rates are high statistics have shown the 75% of ex-inmates reoffend within nine years of release and nearly 40% within the first 12 months
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Are recidivism rates lower in other countries?
Yes, Reyes, the green bound to be lower in some countries for example in Norway the rates are the lowest in Europe
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What are six psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
1) stress and depression
2) institutionalisation
3) prisonisation
4) brutalisation
5) labelling
6) positive psychological effects
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What are two ways stress and depression are brought on in custodial sentencing?
As the individual separated from their family and friends and has had their freedom removed + they also like controlling everyday life in a forced into routine prison living with other inmates who they may not necessarily like
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What can happen and cause instituionalisation?
Inmates can become so adapted to the norms and routines for prison life they can struggle to function outside
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What can happen and cause prisonisation?
The customs and general culture of the prison such as prison routine prison slang in certain attitudes to authority which can also cause problems when the inmate returns to life outside of the prison
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What can happen and cause labelling?
leads to loss of social contact reduced employability all affect him recidivism rates
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What can happen and cause brutalisation?
Present act a school for crime reinforces a criminal lifestyle and criminal laws which leads to high recidivism rates
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What can happen and cause positive psychological effects?
Resulting from opportunities, treatment rehabilitation, and a chance to show more remorse
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Who investigated the psychological effects of imprisonment?
Zimbardo
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What was Zimbarados aim for his study of psychological effects?
to investigate the psychological effects of imprisonment
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What was Zimbarados method for his study of psychological effects?
He used basement rooms at Stanford University were converted into a mock prison. Student volunteers were screened for suitability to take part in a 14 day study. They were randomly assigned to the role of either 'prisoner' or 'guard'. Guards and prisoners wore appropriate uniforms
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What was Zimbarados results for his study of psychological effects?
Prisoners and guards took on their roles. The guards asserted their power and dehumanised the prisoners by only allowing them to eat as a privilege, made the prisoners stand on position for hours at a time and verbally insulated prisoners. The Prisoners began to show negative emotions such as depression, uncontrolled crying, fits of anger, acute emotional disturbance, disorganised thinking and danger of emotional damage.
One prisoner came out in a rash after his parole was refused. The study had to be stopped after 6 days because of the extreme reactions of all participants
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What was Zimbarados conclusion for his study of psychological effects?
The prison experience can have negative psychological effects on prisoners due to powerlessness and deindividuation of the prison
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What is a limitation of Zimbardo study?
It should be caught with generalising from the study as it was not a real prison and the prisoners had not committed any crime they could leave at any time they knew it was only short time and some people suggested they were acting in their roles
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What is a strength of psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
A strength of the psychological effects of custodial sentencing is that it can provide an opportunity for personal reflection and rehabilitation.
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What is the first limitation of psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
A limitation of the psychological effects of custodial sentencing is that it can have negative consequences on mental health.
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What is the second limitation of psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
A limitation of custodial sentencing is that living among violent criminals and experiencing bullying can lead to severe negative psychological effects.
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What principles does behaviour modification in custody follow?
operant conditioning has been used to treat poor behaviour.
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How is operate conditioning used in prisons?
Desirable behaviour is reinforced
Undesirable behaviour is extinguished
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What is the main system for positive reinforcement in prisons?
Token economy
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How does Token economy work in prisons?
Positive behaviour is rewarded with tokens that may be exchanged for purchasing items such as magazines
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In the prison environment what is desirable positive behaviour?
Avoiding conflict and following prison rules
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How do the tokens get taken away?
Non-compliance or disobedience may result in the tokens getting away and privileges being removed
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Who controls the token economy system in the prison?
Prison officers can oversee the program and manage and reinforced the behaviour
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What is the aim for behaviour modification?
The aim is for the offender to see the link between the appropriate behaviour and the consequences
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Who conducted research to support the use of token economy and behaviour modification in custody?
Cullen & Seddon
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What was Cullen and Seddon's aim?
To investigate the use of token economy and young offenders to see if behaviour can be modified and thought reduced recidivism rates
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What was Cullen and Seddon's method?
The boys in the young offenders institution were put on a regime were positive behaviour such as avoiding confrontation with others will reinforce using tokens they could be exchanged. Undesirable behaviours such as hostile behaviour were not reinforced to create extinction
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What were Cullen and Seddon's results?
During the study those who were placed on the token economy system began to produce social desirable behaviours
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What was Cullen and Seddon's conclusion?
Technique based on learning theory can be applied to modify antisocial behaviour
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What is a strength of behaviour modification in custody?
A strength of behaviour modification in custody is that it can help offenders associate appropriate behaviour with positive outcomes, increasing their chances of rehabilitation.
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What is the first limitation of behaviour modification in custody?
A limitation of behaviour modification in custody is that its effects may not always be long-lasting, as offenders can revert to their original behaviour once they leave prison.
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What is the second limitation of behaviour modification in custody?
A limitation of behaviour modification in custody is that it may be more effective for young or less serious offenders, while long-term or serious offenders may require more intensive therapeutic interventions.
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What is the anger management programme?
Form of cognitive behavioural therapy whether the individual is taught how to recognise when they are losing control and then they are encouraged to develop techniques which bring about conflict resolution without the need for violence
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What are the 3 stages of the anger management programme?
1) Cognitive preparation
2) Skill acquisition
3) Application practice
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What does the cognitive preparation include?
The offender must consider past experiences in the typical pattern of the anger. The offender learns to identify the situations that trigger anger and with the help of the therapist come to realise that the reaction is irrational.
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What does the skill acquisition include?
Teaching the individual strategies to deal with the incidents in a positive way
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What does the cognitive preparation include?
The individual puts the strategies into proactive three role-play. This takes place in a carefully monitored environment where the therapist has to reenact an anger provoking situation.
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Who conducted research to support the usefulness of anger management programs in prisons?
Ireland
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What was Ireland's aim?
To investigate the usefulness of anger management programs with young male offenders
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What was Ireland's method?
Pre-imposed anger scores for an experimental group of 50 prisoners were compared to schools of control group who had no anger management treatment. The participants were match for age offence and anger level. The program involved a program of anger management over several days angle was assessed using a checklist of problem behaviours and self report.
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What was Ireland's result?
92% of the experimental group improved on at least one measure
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What was Ireland's conclusion?
Anger management program successfully reduced the destructive behaviour in the prisoners on the programe
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What is the second strength of anger management programs?
Another strength of anger management programs is that they help participants develop non-aggressive ways to handle conflict, reducing the likelihood of violent confrontations.
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What a limitation of anger management programs?
A limitation of anger management programs is that they require trained professionals to deliver sessions, which can be a challenge due to limited resources.
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What is the first strength of anger management programs?
A strength of anger management programs is that there is evidence to support their effectiveness, demonstrating their validity in reducing aggressive behaviour among offenders.
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What do restorative justice programs involve?
The offender making amends to their victim and rehabilitation through reconciliation and collaboration supervise meetings between offender and victim enable the offender to see consequences of their actions and allow the victim to explain the incident affected them including emotional distress it caused
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How can the restorative justice program be us
It can be used with young offenders as an alternative to prison or can be added on to community service
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What are three features of the restorative justice program?
1) Focus on the acceptance of responsibility and change for people who harm others
2) those responsible voluntarily choose to meet the victim if the victim wishes to take part
3) Focus on positive outcomes for both victim and offender
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Who Conducted research to support the restorative justice programs?
Sherman and Strang
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What was Sherman and Strang's aim?
To measure the effectiveness of restorative justice in practice in terms of reoffending
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What was Sherman and Strang's procedure?
36 studies of recidivism rates were compared for individuals who are part of a restorative justice program and those who are not. This was a meta analysis.
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What was Sherman and Strang's results?
Recidivism rates were reducing comparison to rates after costal sentencing. Restorative justice is more effective when there are a personal victim intends to work for violence and property crime however restorative justice is not effective in all cases.
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What was Sherman and Strang's conclsuion?
There is strong evidence to suggest the restorative justice is effective in some cases in reducing reoffending
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what is the first strength of restorative justice programs?
A strength of restorative justice programs is that they allow offenders to see the victim's perspective, which can lead to greater empathy and a stronger sense of guilt and shame.
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what is the second strength of restorative justice programs?
Another strength of restorative justice programs is that they can provide offenders with closure, allowing them to feel they have a chance for a fresh start and a future without reoffending, especially if the victim forgives them.
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is a limitation of a source of restorative justice programs
A limitation of restorative justice programs is that some offenders who choose to participate may already be motivated to reform, meaning the program’s effectiveness could be overstated.
