Gender Flashcards
(244 cards)
1
Q
What is sex?
A
Biological term that refers to the reproductive differences between males and females defined by chromosome, hormone and anatomical differences - all societies make the same distinction
2
Q
What is gender?
A
psychological term that refers to ideas which we hold about the attitudes, behaviour and personality of males and females in a given society - societies differ in their views of masculine and feminine behaviour
3
Q
What is the difference between sex and gender?
A
Gender is more subjective than sex.
Sex can be objectively defined by genes and physical appearance whereas gender is open to interpretation
4
Q
What is gender identity?
A
someone’s personal internal, sense of gender.
5
Q
What can change over time, sex or gender?
A
Gender
6
Q
What is a sex role stereo type?
A
An organised belief about the behaviour, attitudes and characteristics expected of males and females held by a particular culture
7
Q
How are sex role stereotypes learned?
A
during the socialisation process, where individuals are taught acceptable behaviours for males and females.
8
Q
How do sex role stereotypes influence later life?
A
influence career choices and subjects selected in school. For example, children may be steered towards traditionally masculine or feminine roles and careers.
9
Q
How are masculinity and femininity defined across cultures?
A
Behaviours seen as masculine or feminine vary by culture, though some stereotypes are common (e.g., men are aggressive, women are passive).
10
Q
What is the effect of sex role stereotypes on group perceptions?
A
Sex role stereotypes lead to overemphasising:
Similarities within a group (e.g., all men are ambitious).
Differences between groups (e.g., all women are caring, while men are not).
11
Q
How do the media reinforce sex role stereotypes?
A
strongly reinforces sex role stereotypes, shaping societal expectations of gendered behaviour.
12
Q
What are typical masculine behaviours?
A
Typical masculine behaviours include being logical, competitive, physical, and rough.
13
Q
What are typical feminine behaviours?
A
Typical feminine behaviours include being nurturing, submissive, gentle, and caring.
14
Q
What is sex role stereotyping?
A
the differential treatment of the sexes, where males and females are encouraged to behave in ways associated with their gender.
15
Q
What is androgyny?
A
A flexible gender role where similarly high levels of masculine and feminine behaviours are displayed in the same person. This can refer to males and females
16
Q
What is Bem’s androgynous hypothesis?
A
Androgyny is a positive and desirable condition, where individuals exhibit a mix of traditionally masculine and feminine traits.
17
Q
What is the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)?
A
A self-report tool developed by Sandra Bem (1974) with 60 items rated on a 7-point scale to assess masculinity, femininity, and gender-neutral characteristics
18
Q
What types of characteristics are included in the BSRI?
A
The BSRI includes traditionally masculine (e.g., forceful), feminine (e.g., affectionate), and gender-neutral traits (e.g., reliable).
19
Q
How are scores calculated in the Bem Sex Role Inventory?
A
Separate scores are calculated for masculinity and femininity, and an overall type (e.g., masculine, feminine, androgynous, undifferentiated) is determined.
20
Q
What percentage of males and females were classified as androgynous in Bem’s research?
A
24% of males and 27% of females were found to be androgynous.
21
Q
What are examples of masculine items in the BSRI?
A
Independent, forceful, aggressive, ambitious.
22
Q
What are examples of feminine items in the BSRI?
A
Cheerful, affectionate, sympathetic, shy.
23
Q
What are examples of neutral items in the BSRI?
A
Helpful, happy, reliable, inefficient.
24
Q
How are BSRI scores classified?
A
Masculine: High masculinity, low femininity
Feminine: High femininity, low masculinity
Androgynous: High masculinity and femininity
Undifferentiated: Low masculinity and femininity
25
Someone who has a high masculine score and a high feminine score is classed as…
androgynous
26
Whose study also supports the BSRI?
Burchardt & Serbin
27
What did Burchardt & Serbin (1982) find in their research?
They found that androgyny, measured using the BSRI, was linked to better psychological well-being and mental health, particularly in relation to depression.
28
A questionnaire that gives consistent results every time it’s repeated has high…
external reliability
29
What is the first strength of BSRI?
A strength of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) is the strong evidence for its validity and reliability, which supports its use as a measure of gender identity.
30
What is the first limitation for BSRI?
internal validity has been questioned due to potential issues with self-insight, response bias, and subjective interpretation of the scale.
31
What is the second strength of BSRI?
A strength of Bem’s research is that it highlights the potential psychological benefits of androgyny, suggesting that androgynous individuals are better equipped to respond flexibly to different situations.
32
What is the biological explanation of sex and gender?
The biological explanation suggests that gender is determined at conception, with chromosomes and hormones influencing sex and gender development.
33
How many chromosomes do humans have?
Humans have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. The 23rd pair differs between sexes: XX for females and XY for males.
33
How does the 23rd chromosome pair determine sex and gender?
The sperm fertilising the egg carries either an X or a Y chromosome, determining the sex of the embryo. XY results in male development, while XX results in female development.
34
What happens in an XX embryo?
The absence of a Y chromosome causes the gonads to become ovaries, producing few hormones prenatally.
35
What happens in an XY embryo?
The Y chromosome causes the gonads to become testes, which produce testosterone by week 8 of gestation.
36
What are gonads?
Gonads are sex glands that are initially identical in both males and females but develop into ovaries or testes depending on the chromosomal makeup.
37
What role do sex hormones play in sexual development?
Sex hormones, such as testosterone, oestrogen, and oxytocin, guide the development of secondary sexual characteristics and brain structures related to gender.
38
What is the role of oestrogen in the body?
Oestrogen promotes female characteristics, regulates menstruation, feminises the brain, and influences behaviours like sensitivity and cooperation.
39
What evidence supports the role of oestrogen?
Albrecht & Pepe (1997) found that increasing oestrogen levels in pregnant baboons raised cortisol production and reduced miscarriages, indicating its role in pregnancy maintenance.
40
What evidence supports the role of testosterone?
Silber & Wagner (2004) found that increased testosterone led to aggression in rats, supporting its role in aggressive behaviour.
40
What does testosterone do in the body?
Testosterone stimulates male secondary sexual characteristics, masculinises the brain (especially areas related to spatial skills), and is linked to aggression and competitiveness.
41
What evidence supports the role of oxytocin?
Van Leengoed (1987) found that inhibiting oxytocin in female rats delayed maternal behaviours, suggesting that oxytocin plays a key role in nurturing and care.
41
What is the role of oxytocin in the body?
Oxytocin helps facilitate childbirth, breastfeeding, and influences female social behaviours like mate selection, nurturing, and protection of offspring.
42
What are sex chromosomes?
- the 23rd pair of chromosomes.
- present in all the cells in our body.
- what controls our biological sex.
43
What are the 3 types of sex hormones?
oestrogen, testosterone and oxytocin
44
Do females produce testosterone?
Yes, small amounts, about 10% of the amount found in males
45
What type of hormone is oestrogen?
secondary hormone
46
What type of hormone is testosterone?
Steroid hormone
47
What type of hormone is oxytocin?
polypeptide hormone
48
What is oxytocin?
acts as a neurotransmitter to control key aspects of the reproductive system
49
What does testosterone cause the body to do?
causes male genitalia to develop
50
What does oestrogen cause the body to do?
causes female genitalia to develop
51
Where is oxytocin produced?
in both male and females inside and outside the brain
52
What does oxytocin do to behaviour?
makes more empathy and sympathy
53
What does testosterone do to behaviour?
there is a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggression or competitiveness.
54
What does testosterone do to brain development
increases the size of the sexually dimorphic nucleus in the hypothalamus, a brain region that controls sexual behaviour.
55
What supports the effect of testosterone on gender?
Some studies have found that women who were exposed to testosterone before they were born tend to display more “tomboyish” behaviours.
56
What is the first limitation of the role of chromosomes and hormones?
A limitation of the biological explanation of gender development is that much of the research into the effects of hormones is conducted on animals, which may not be directly applicable to humans.
57
What is the second limitation of the role of chromosomes and hormones?
A limitation of the biological explanation of gender development is that, over time, an increasing number of individuals from both sexes are identifying as androgynous, despite the same chromosomal and hormonal patterns being present.
58
What is the third limitation of the role of chromosomes and hormones?
A limitation of the biological explanation of gender development is that some research challenges the importance of testosterone in influencing aggressive behaviour.
59
What is an intersex condition?
a person doesn’t develop the genitalia typical for their sex chromosomes.
60
What are the two types of atypical sex chromosome patterns?
XXY Klienefelters
XO Turners syndrome
61
What is an abnormal chromosome pattern?
When an individual has more or less that 46 chromosomes
62
What is an atypical chromosome pattern?
Any combinations of sex chromosomes other than XX (female) and XY (male)
63
How does Klinefelter's syndrome occur?
Through meiosis; the cell division process that produces egg and sperm cells. An error in cell division cause the egg/sperm cell to have an extra copy of the X chromosome in each of its body cells
64
What is the chance of have klinefelters syndrome?
1 in 750 births
65
What are the symptoms of Klinefelter's syndrome?
- externally male in appearance under developed genital due to low prenatal levels of testosterone
- some breast development of puberty, rounding of body contours
- minimal body hair
- long limbs
- clumsy poor language skills
- gender identity confusion
66
Who conducted the evidence for Klinefelter's syndrome?
Simpson
67
Who does Klinefelter syndrome effect?
Boys
68
What was Simpsons evidence for Klinefelter's syndrome?
Found that some of the behavioural and language difficulties encountered by those with KS can be treated with testosterone and counselling. Whilst the effects are better if the treatment is provided earlier - it does show that some of the effects of KS can be counteracted
69
What chromosomes do people with turners syndrome have?
XO
70
What are the physical symptoms of turners syndrome?
- female external appearance
- no ovaries and breasts (underdeveloped)
- mostly infertile
- shirt webbed neck
- low set ears
71
What are the psychological symptoms of turners syndrome?
strong reading ability
weak visuospatial and mathematical skills
72
What is the frequency of turners syndrome?
1/2000 female births
73
Who provides evidence for turners syndrome?
Price
74
What was Price evidence for turners syndrome?
Conducted a longitudinal study of 156 females and found 15 post infant deaths in TS females due to cardiovascular conditions. This compared with 3.5 non TS females.
TS females have a shorter than average life span
75
What is the first evaluation of atypical chromosome patterns?
76
What is the first evaluation of atypical chromosome patterns?
77
What is the first evaluation of atypical chromosome patterns?
78
According to cognitive explanations of gender…
we develop an understanding of gender over the course of our childhood and use mental processes to understand gender
79
What are the two key cognitive theories of gender development?
- Kohlberg's theory of gender constancy
- Gender schema theory
80
How is understanding of gender shaped?
nurture
learning
experience
81
According to Kohlberg’s theory of gender, a child’s understanding of gender is influenced by...
biological factors
learning
nature
nurture
82
What is Kohlberg’s theory of gender development based on?
based on the idea that children’s understanding of gender develops in stages, linked to their cognitive abilities. It suggests that gender understanding is an active process, where children interact with their environment and seek role models as they learn.
83
What are the three stages of Kohlberg’s theory of gender development?
Gender Identity (Stage 1)
Gender Stability (Stage 2)
Gender Constancy (Stage 3)
84
What age does the first stage occur?
Around the age of 2
85
What age does the second stage occur?
Around the age of 4
86
What age does the third stage occur?
Around the age of 6
87
What is Stage 1: Gender Identity?
Children begin to label themselves and others as male or female. At this stage, they think gender can change based on appearance or external features
88
What is Stage 2: Gender Stability?
Children understand that their gender is stable over time (e.g., a boy will always be a boy), but they still believe gender can change based on external appearance.
89
What is Stage 3: Gender Constancy?
children realise that gender is consistent over time and across situations, even if appearance or behavior changes.
90
What is an example of Gender Constancy?
For example, a girl with short hair driving a truck is still a girl. Children at this stage actively seek role models and begin to imitate gender-appropriate behavior.
91
What is an example of gender constancy?
For example, a boy playing with dolls may be mistaken as becoming a girl.
92
What role do role models play in Stage 3: Gender Constancy?
children actively seek out role models to help them understand and internalize gender-appropriate behaviors. They imitate these role models to reinforce their gender identity.
93
According to Kohlberg, are the stages of gender development universal?
Yes, Kohlberg believed the stages of gender development are universal and occur in the same order worldwide. However, the specific behaviors and expectations associated with gender may vary depending on cultural norms.
94
According to Kohlberg, gender identity is when children…
begin to recognise gender labels
begin to recognise their own gender
95
What is a limitation of Stage 1: Gender Identity?
children think gender is just a label and can be changed. They may think they can "become" a different gender, and their understanding is based on superficial features like clothes or hair
96
What might happen if a child in Stage 2: Gender Stability sees someone of their gender wearing clothes or acting in a way typical of the opposite gender?
might believe that the person has changed their gender. For example, they might think that a woman wearing a suit is actually a man, reflecting their reliance on external appearance to define gender.
97
What question could you ask to see if a child is in the gender identity stage?
Are you a girl or a boy?
98
What question could you ask to see if a child is in the gender stability stage?
When you grow up will you be a girl or a boy?
99
What question could you ask to see if a child is in the gender constancy stage?
If your brother wore a dress would he be a girl or a boy?
100
Who conducted research to support Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory?
Slaby and Frey
101
What was the method for Slaby and Frey's study?
Children aged 2-5 were asked questions to assess their level of gender constancy and then several weeks later showed them a film of a man and woman performing gender stereotypical activities
102
What were the findings for Slaby and Frey's study?
Children with high levels of gender constancy spent more time looking at same sex models than children with low levels of gender constancy. This suggests that high gender constancy children watch their own gender to acquire information about gender appropriate behaviour
103
How does Slaby and Freys study support Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory>?
- gender development is an active process
- gender constancy is a cause rather than an effect of the imitation of same sex model
104
According to Kohlberg’s theory, children only begin to imitate same-gender models and adopt gender-stereotypical behaviour…
- once they reach the gender constancy stage.
- once they understand that gender remains consistent across different situations.
105
What is the first strength of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory?
A strength of Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory is that there is evidence to support the idea that children imitate gendered behavior of same-gender models only once they have acquired gender constancy.
106
What is the first limitation of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory?
A key limitation of Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory is the use of self-report methods, especially with young children, as it may lead to inaccurate or incomplete data.
107
What is the second limitation of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory?
A limitation of Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental Theory is that it focuses primarily on cognitive factors and neglects the influence of social and cultural factors, such as the role of parents and peers.
108
What is a gender schema?
A gender schema is an organised unit of knowledge—a mental representation of the characteristics and behaviours associated with a particular gender.
109
At what age do children establish their gender identity, according to Gender Schema Theory?
Around the age of 2.
110
What types of information are included in a gender schema?
Hobbies, dress, hairstyles, occupations, roles, and personality characteristics.
110
What do children do once they have established their gender identity?
They actively search their environment for information to help them understand what it means to be male or female.
111
What happens when a person is identified as male or female?
The relevant gender schema is triggered, influencing how that person is perceived and how they behave.
112
How do gender schemas affect children's attention to activities?
Children pay more attention to activities associated with their own sex (e.g., boys focus on trains, girls focus on dolls).
113
How does gender schema theory explain children's behaviour?
the emergence of gender identity (i.e., recognition of being either a girl or a boy), leads to increased motivation to selectively attend to and recall information about the same-gender group and to behave in gender consistent ways
113
What happens to information that is inconsistent with a child’s gender schema?
It tends not to be encoded and is often ignored
114
What research supports Gender Schema Theory?
Martin & Halverson (1983) showed children schema-consistent (e.g., girl with a doll) and schema-inconsistent (e.g., girl with a gun) images. Children recalled more gender-consistent images, supporting the theory.
114
What are the three stages of gender schema development?
Stage 1: Child learns things associated with each sex (e.g., girls play with dolls).
Stage 2: For their own sex, a child makes links between different schema components (e.g., girls who play with dolls also wear dresses).
Stage 3: Child can link gender components for both sexes and, by age 6, has fixed ideas about gender-appropriate behaviour.
115
At what stage do children begin to imitate models of the same gender, according to Martin and Halverson?
At the gender identity stage.
115
According to the cognitive approach, how do schemas influence behaviour?
Schemas shape how we interpret and respond to the world based on past experiences.
116
How did Martin and Halverson challenge Kohlberg’s theory?
They argued that children imitate same-gender models as soon as they learn gender labels, rather than waiting until later stages.
116
What is the name for a mental framework constructed from prior experiences?
Schema.
117
What does Martin and Halverson’s Gender Schema Theory suggest?
Children acquire an understanding of gender by constructing gender schemas.
118
How do gender schemas affect children's behaviour?
They influence what children pay attention to, remember, and how they behave based on gender norms.
119
What is the first limitation with gender schema theory?
A key criticism of Gender Schema Theory is its contradiction with Kohlberg’s cognitive theory of gender development.
120
What is the second limitation with gender schema theory?
A major limitation of Gender Schema Theory is that it assumes changing gender schemas and stereotypes should lead to changes in behaviour, but research suggests this is not always the case.
121
What is a strength of gender schema theory?
A key strength of Gender Schema Theory is that it effectively explains why children's gender-related attitudes and behaviours tend to be rigid and long-lasting.
122
What is Freuds psychoanalytic theory?
Conscious behaviour is driven by the unconscious drives with the structure of the mind consisting of the id, ego and superego
123
What drives conscious behaviour according to Freud?
unconscious drives
124
Which psychosexual stage is crucial for gender development?
Phallic stage (ages 3-5)
124
What is the Oedipus complex?
A conflict in boys where they develop desire for their mother and see their father as a rival.
124
What are the three components of personality?
Id, ego, superego
125
What is castration anxiety?
The boy's fear that his father will punish him by removing his penis.
126
How do boys resolve the Oedipus complex?
By identifying with their father and repressing their desires for their mother.
127
What two things does this process help develop?
1. Superego (adopting the morals of the father)
2. Male gender identity (internalising male gender roles)
128
What might happen if a boy does not resolve his Oedipus complex?
He may experience gender identity confusion and potentially develop homosexual tendencies.
129
What is the Electra complex?
A conflict in girls where they develop desire for their father and resent their mother.
130
What is penis envy?
The belief that girls have been castrated and a desire for a penis as a symbol of male power.
131
How do girls resolve penis envy?
By replacing the desire for a penis with a desire for a baby (penis-baby making project).
132
How do girls resolve the Electra complex?
By identifying with their mother and repressing their desire for their father.
133
What might happen if a girl does not resolve the Electra complex?
She may experience gender identity confusion.
133
What two things does this process help develop?
1. Superego (adopting the morals of the mother)
2. Female gender identity (internalising female gender roles)
133
Why did Freud believe female identification was weaker than male identification?
Because girls did not experience the same fear (castration anxiety) as boys, making their gender identity less stable.
134
What is the difference between a boys and girls development according to the psychodynamic explanation?
Boys through the opus complex actively identify with the father they leave behind the passivity of their bisexual face becoming active and dominant whereas girls through the electric complex become passively identify with the mother and therefore assume the passivity of her bisexual phase becoming quiet and submissive
135
Who gave evidence to support the psychodynamic explanation of gender development?
Rekers abd Moray
136
What was Rekers and Moray' support for the psychodynamic explanation of gender development?
They investigated the sample of boys gender identity disorders and found that in many cases where fathers were absent from birth had left home before the child was aged five was psychologically remote
137
What if the first limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development?
A major limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development is its heavy reliance on the nuclear family structure, suggesting that children require both a mother and a father to develop a typical gender identity.
138
What if the second limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development?
A key limitation of Freud’s psychodynamic explanation of gender development is the lack of scientific rigour in its research methods. His theories, such as the Oedipus and Electra complexes, are based on subjective interpretations rather than empirical evidence.
139
What if the first strength of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development?
A strength of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development is its focus on the early stages of childhood and the influence of unconscious processes, which emphasises the importance of early parent-child relationships in shaping gender identity.
140
Why did Freud say boys hate their fathers?
because of sexual jealousy over their mothers.
141
What did Freud believe about unresolved issues during the phallic stage?
unresolved issues during the phallic stage could lead to confusion about gender identity and potentially cause homosexuality - However, hundreds of studies find no link between homosexuality and absent fathers, or mothers.
142
143
What does the social learning theory state about gender development?
learned from observing others, and the environment (nurture) shapes gender development.
144
What role does society play in gender development according to social learning theory?
Gender differences develop because of the way society treats males and females. Socialising agents like parents, peers, teachers, culture, and media play a significant role in shaping gender behaviour.
145
What are socialising agents in social learning theory?
include parents, peers, teachers, and wider cultural and media influences that impact gender learning.
146
What are the four mediational processes in social learning theory?
Attention
Retention
Motivation
Motor Reproduction
147
What is the role of attention in gender development according to social learning theory?
Attention is the process where a child focuses on and observes a behaviour, such as a boy watching his older brother kick a football.
148
What is retention in the context of social learning theory?
Retention refers to the child remembering the observed behaviour (e.g., the boy remembering how his brother kicked the ball).
149
What does motivation mean in social learning theory?
Motivation occurs when a child wants to imitate a behaviour because they desire to be like someone they admire, such as a boy wanting to be like his older brother.
150
What is motor reproduction in social learning theory?
Motor reproduction is when the child has the physical ability to perform the behaviour they observed (e.g., the boy must be able to physically kick the ball).
151
What does identification mean in gender development?
Identification is when a child forms a connection with a person they see as similar to themselves or possessing attractive qualities.
152
Who can be a role model in gender development?
A role model can be a parent, peer, teacher, or someone seen in the media. Role models are usually the same sex as the child and possess desirable traits.
153
What is modelling in gender learning?
Modelling is when a person demonstrates a behavior that a child may imitate (e.g., a mother cooking dinner, which a daughter might later imitate with her dolls).
154
What happens when individuals imitate models showing gender appropriate behaviour?
They receive direct reinforcement - making them more likely to maintain their gender appropriate behaviour
155
How does reinforcement influence gender behaviour in social learning theory?
Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior will be imitated. Positive reinforcement encourages gender-appropriate behavior.
156
What is direct reinforcement in gender development?
Direct reinforcement occurs when a child is directly rewarded for displaying gender-appropriate behaviour, such as receiving praise for playing football well.
157
What is indirect (vicarious) reinforcement in gender learning?
Indirect reinforcement happens when a child observes the consequences (rewards or punishments) of others' behaviour and learns from it, such as a girl seeing her sister praised for helping with dinner.
158
How does differential reinforcement contribute to gender identity?
Differential reinforcement involves encouraging boys and girls to exhibit gender-appropriate behaviours, which helps them develop their gender identity (e.g., "I am a girl" or "I am a boy").
159
How does punishment affect imitation of gender behaviours?
Punishment discourages certain behaviours. If a child sees someone being punished (e.g., a boy teased for showing feminine behaviour), they are less likely to imitate that behaviour.
160
Who provided evidence to support the social learning explanation of gender development?
Smith and Lloyd
161
What was Smith and Lloyds method for social learning explanation?
Observed 32 mothers playing with 6 month old babies where sex types and sex neutral toys were available for play. Two male and two female babies were presented equally as their own and the opposite sex
162
What were the results of Smith and Lloyds study for social learning explanation?
Only babies perceived to be girls were offered dolls initially
only babies perceived to be boys were offered hammers initially and encouraged to play actively
163
How does Smith and lloyds study support social learning explanation?
Gender appropriate behaviour is reinforced at an early age as the mothers displayed differential reinforcement
164
What is the first limitation of the social learning explanation of gender development?
- empahsies the role of reinforcement & observation
- cannot support individuals who display gender innappropriate behaviour
- argued that it could be supported bioloigcally (hormones)
165
What is the first strength of the social learning explanation of gender development?
A strength of the social learning explanation of gender development is its ability to explain the reinforcement and perpetuation of gender-related behaviours across cultures.
166
What is the second limitation of the social learning explanation of gender development?
A limitation of the social learning explanation of gender development is its neglect of the role of biological factors and its sole focus on the environment.
167
What does media do to gender roles?
Shape the acquisition and maintenance of gender roles
168
What does the media provide in terms of gender development?
Media provides a constant source of role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate.
169
How can the media influence our behaviour?
through observational learning
170
What does evidence show about the media's portrayal of gender?
Evidence shows that the media provides clear gender stereotypes that are quite rigid.
171
How do media gender stereotypes affect behaviour?
Media gender stereotypes may play a role in reinforcing social stereotypes for male and female behaviour.
172
What usually happens if you behaviour in a gender stereotypes way?
usually rewarded
173
What usually happens if you behaviour outside of gender stereotypes way?
usually punished
174
What impact can media gender stereotypes have on society?
Media gender stereotypes can reinforce social stereotypes regarding male and female behaviour.
175
Rewards for behaving in gender-stereotyped ways act as…
vicarious reinforcement
176
Who provides evidence to support medias influence of gender roles?
Furnham and Farragher
177
What was Furnham and Farraghers study?
In a study of TV adverts, they found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles in professional contexts whereas women were shown in family roles in domestic settings
178
What does the media do other than confirm existing gender typical behaviour?
Provides ifnromation to males and females in terms of likely success or otherwise of adopting these behaviours.
179
What does watching other perform gender appropriate behaviour increase in a child?
Their belief that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours themselves
180
What did McGhee and Freud do?
Used a series of short stories to investigate children's gender stereotypes and compared them to children who watched loads of tv to children who only watch a little bit of tv
Found children who watched more TV had stronger stereotypes about gender
181
What are two limitations of natural experiments?
- Participants cannot be randomly allocated to groups.
- It is difficult to control extraneous variables.
182
What is the first limitation on the influence of media on gender roles?
A limitation that undermines the influence of media on gender roles is the difficulty in establishing cause and effect in research, particularly due to the challenge of controlling extraneous variables in natural experiments.
183
What does studying the influence of culture on gender roles allow psychologist to do?
To asses the extent to which gender is a biological or social construct
184
What would happen if gender was biologically determind?
There would be no cultural differences in gender related behaviours
185
What do different gender roles between cultures suggest?
That gender is socially constructed
186
Who conducted a study that support cultural difference influencing gender roles?
Mead
187
What was Meads study for cultural differences?
Mead carries out enthographic research by lviign with various tribes in New Guinea for six months (Mundugamor tribe and Tchambuli Tride)
188
What was the Mundugamor tribe gender roles?
Both sexs were masculine (assertive, arrogant, fierce) both parents detested parenting so much that the sleeping babies were hung out of the way in dark places
189
What were the gender roles of the Tchambuli tribe?
Gender roles were reversed compared to Western society. Females were independent, took care of trading and were the providers, males were sentimental and emotional
190
What does Meads cultural difference research show?
Gender roles are socially constructed rather than biological
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Who conducted a study to support attitudes to gender roles are universal and biological?
Williams and Best - found universal agreement across cultures regarding men were seen as dominant and women as caring and sociable
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What is a limitation of the influence of culture on gender roles - problems with Meads research?
A major problem with Mead's research is that her involvement in the tribe she studied may have led to biased findings and a lack of objectivity
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What is the second limitation of the influence of culture on gender roles - problems with Meads research?
A key issue in conducting cross-cultural research is the problem of an imposed etic, where researchers apply their own cultural norms to a different culture.
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Sex is biologically...
determind
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What is gender dysphoria?
A condition whereby the external sexual characteristics of the body are perceived as opposite to the psychological experience of oneself as male of female
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What is the estimate about how many people have gender dysphoria?
1/5000 people - hard to calculate as people are reluctant to admit
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What is a simple way to explain gender dysphoria?
- biologically male, but feel they are female
- biologically female, but feel they are male
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What is transgender?
when people with gender dysphoria live according to their gender identity
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What are the two explanations for what causes atypical gender development?
- Social learning theory explanation
- Biological explanation
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How does social learning explain gender dysphoria?
GD is regarded as learned, such as by reinforcement (operant conditioning)
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What does the social learning theory suggest about atypical gender development?
It suggests that individuals who closely identify with a model of the opposite gender, are reinforced for imitating them, and internalise their behaviours may develop a gender identity of the opposite gender, leading to gender dysphoria.
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How does identification with a model of the opposite gender contribute to gender dysphoria, according to social learning theory?
If an individual strongly identifies with and imitates a role model of the opposite gender while receiving reinforcement, they may develop an opposite-gender identity, resulting in gender dysphoria.
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What role does reinforcement play in the social learning explanation of gender dysphoria?
Reinforcement strengthens the behaviors and identity associated with the opposite gender, contributing to the development of gender dysphoria.
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What is gender dysphoria in the context of social learning theory?
It is the distress experienced when an individual's gender identity does not match their assigned sex, potentially resulting from identifying with and imitating an opposite-gender model.
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According to the social learning explaination for GD, who gender does it occur more frequently in?
Males
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Who conducted a study to support social explanation for gender dysphoria?
Zucker
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What was Zuckers method for gender dysphoria?
studied gender-dysphoric 2-3 year olds who had been referred to a clinic
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What was Zuckers results for gender dysphoria study and how does this support
only 12% of girls were still Gender dysphoric at age 18
only 20% of boys were still gender dysphoric at age 18
This suports the view that most people exhibition GD do so in the short term
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What was zuckers other study for social explanation of GD?
Zucker et al conducted interviews with
115 boys who were unhappy with their gender, and also interviewed their mothers.
Of the boys who were diagnosed with gender dysphoria, 64 % had very close relationships to their mothers.
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What is a limitation of Zuckers studies?
Zucker’s project wasn’t an experimental study and didn’t include a control group, so it couldn’t establish a cause and effect relationship
The relationship being investigated of gender dysphoria and identification (unethical)
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How does the Genetic explanation explain Gender dysphoria?
regarded GD as inherited abnormality
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What are the two types of factors that biological explanations include?
hormonal
genetic
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What do genetic explanations suggest about gender dysphoria (GD)?
GD is an inherited abnormality linked to gene variants of the androgen receptor.
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What have gene profiling studies focused on in relation to GD?
Variants of the androgen receptor gene that influence testosterone action and brain masculinisation.
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How do androgen receptor gene variants influence gender dysphoria?
They affect how testosterone acts in the brain, potentially leading to incomplete masculinisation.
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What do biochemical explanations suggest about gender dysphoria?
Hormone imbalances during foetal growth and later childhood development may contribute to GD.
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Why is the timing of male hormone surges important?
They must happen at specific times to masculinise the infant’s brain.
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What similar hormonal process occurs in female development?
Oestrogen plays a key role in feminisation.
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How might hormone imbalances be linked to genetics?
They may be genetically influenced, suggesting a biological basis for GD.
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If someone has an abnormally long version of the androgen receptor gene, they have an abnormally long...
Long gene Allele
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What does the long allele of the androgen receptor gene lead to?
less testosterone
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What did Hare (2009) investigate in relation to gender dysphoria?
Gene samples from males with and without GD to find genetic differences.
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What was Hare (2009)’s key finding?
A: A correlation between GD and androgen receptor gene variants.
A correlation between GD and androgen receptor gene variants. Hare et al. found that male-to-female trans individuals were slightly more likely than other biological males to have the long allele of the androgen receptor gene.
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How does Hare’s (2009) research support a biological explanation of GD?
It suggests gene variants contribute to a failure to masculinise the brain in the womb. If people with GD also have the androgen receptor gene variant, it implies GD may be linked to having the long allele on this gene. However, as a correlational study, it cannot prove cause and effect.
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What is the first limitation of the biological explanation of gender dysphoria?
A limitation of the biological explanation of gender dysphoria is that it does not fully explain all cases.
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What is a limitation of social learning explanation of gender dysphoria?
A limitation of the social learning explanation of gender dysphoria (GD) is that it assumes parents reinforce dysphoric gender identities in their children.
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How do sex hormones affect pre-natal brain development?
Sex hormones influence the structural and functional development of the brain in males and females, leading to differences in cognitive abilities and behaviors.
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What psychological differences did Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) suggest between males and females?
Females tend to have superior language, emotion, and fine motor skills, while males excel in visuo-spatial and mathematical skills.
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What evidence supports the idea that males and females have different cognitive interests from birth?
Connellan et al. (2000) found that baby boys showed more interest in mechanical objects, while baby girls focused more on faces, suggesting these differences are biological rather than learned.
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What is the sexual dimorphic nucleus (SDN), and how does it differ between males and females?
The SDN, located in the hypothalamus, is larger in males than in females, which may be due to prenatal exposure to testosterone.
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How did Gorski (1978) contribute to understanding brain differences in males and females?
Gorski found structural differences in the hypothalamus of male and female rats, linking them to testosterone exposure and potential behavioral differences.
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How might differences in the hypothalamus relate to male and female sexual behaviour?
A larger SDN in males is associated with higher levels of promiscuity, suggesting a biological basis for differences in sexual behaviour.
