Memory Flashcards

Question

Who did the study for capacity of the STM?

Answer 1

18-30 seconds

Answer 2

Peterson and Peterson (1959) wanted to test the theory that information is quickly lost from short-term memory if its not rehearsed.

Answer 3

Laboratory experiment. 24 psychology students participated. Participants had to try and recall random trigrams (three consecutive consonants like GPR) after different intervals of time (3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 seconds). During these intervals, participants had to count backwards from a random number in groups of three and four. This was to stop them from rehearsing the trigrams in their heads.

Answer 4

- Participants could recall fewer trigrams as the time gap increased. - 3-second interval - participants recalled 80% correctly. - 6-second interval - participants recalled 50% correctly. - 18-second interval - participants recalled 10% correctly.

Answer 5

Mainly acoustic - by sound

Answer 6

potentially a lifetime

Answer 7

semantically - by meaning

Answer 8

Baddeley - 4 groups and asked participants to recall one of four lists of words that either sounded similar, sounded different, had similar meaning or a different meaning.

Answer 9

Found that participants had more difficulty recalling acoustically similar words when tested immediately after learning. Found participants had more difficulty recalling semantically similar words 20 minutes after learning.

Answer 10

Concluded that short-term memory is encoded using acoustic coding and long-term memory is encoded using semantic coding.

Answer 11

Murdock - primacy recency effect

Answer 12

Words at the beginning of list (LTM) and end of the list (STM) recalled better than the words in the middle

Answer 13

The sensory register is a temporary store that stores sensory information while we process it, info from the outside world in raw format

Answer 14

a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory.

Answer 15

the continuous storage of information.

Answer 16

People use an acoustic code for short-term memory

Answer 17

People use a semantic code for long-term memory

Answer 18

Their long-term memory store would not be damaged. They would no longer be able to transfer new information from the short-term memory store to the long-term memory store to store new memories.

Answer 19

Each memory store can be damaged independently

Answer 20

A strength of the multi model is that there is evidence to support the functional separation of the short-term memory and long-term memory, Murdock, 20 words list, serial position curve

Answer 21

A limitation of the multi model is that it relies heavily on laboratory experiments which can be artificial in luck Monday realism Murdock, baddeley, sperling (involve tasks which are far removed from how we use memory in everyday life)

Answer 22

Another strength of the multi model is that it is supported by clinical evidence particularly for case studies of amnesic patients which demonstrate the independent functioning of short-term memory long-term memory HM HIPAA campus removed to stop epileptic seizures he was unable to form new long-term memories

Answer 23

Declarative knowledge is stored in episode and semantic systems where as motor skills are stored as procedural knowledge Procedural memory can be accessed without conscious awareness of its use. It is an implicit memory where is episodic and semantic memories are explicit memories as we are aware that we are retrieving information.

Answer 24

Procedural memories and declarative memories

Answer 25

"knows how" an implicit memory that does not rely on conscious collection

Answer 26

"Knowing that" - an explicit memory which can be consciously inspected

Answer 27

Semantic and episodic

Answer 28

Memory of general knowledge, meaningful info stored but not where or how it was learnt Paris is the capital of France

Answer 29

Memory for life events that we have experienced personally (first day of school) or been told about

Answer 30

Memory for motor skills such as riding a bike or changing gear without conscious thought

Answer 31

HM and Clive wearing

Answer 32

At 27 HM had his hippocampus removed to cure epilepsy. His memory was affected dramatically. He could recall most memories from before the operation but could not form new memories (episodic and semantic). Although he could not recall what he had eaten for breakfast, he could acquire a new procedural memories. He learnt to play tennis.

Answer 33

Apply wearing with a famous musician who suffered a rare brain infection which left him with a memory only for current events. If asked if he could play the piano, declarative knowledge he would say no but he could in fact play the piano which was procedural knowledge.

Answer 34

1. Hippocampus 2. Temporal Lobe 3. Cerebellum and prefrontal cortex

Answer 35

The multi-store model predicts that if people have damage to their short-term memory then this will also damage their ability to form new long-term memories

Answer 36

Baddeley and Hitch

Answer 37

a model of STM that refers to an active store which holds and manipulates information that is currently being consciously thought about

Answer 38

That STM is made up of 3 components (that all store different types of memory) allowing for temporary storage of verbal and visuospatial material

Answer 39

- Short-term memory is seen as an active store that manipulates information - There are multiple components to short-term memory

Answer 40

possible to carry out more than one task at the same time but only if one is verbal and one is visual

Answer 41

The phonological loop is the component of working memory that stores auditory or verbal and verbal or auditory information, and remembers the order that verbal information is presented. When words are written down on a page, we use subvocal rehearsal to store them in the phonological loop.

Answer 42

an auditory and verbal information we hear (Can also store verbal information that is written visually) - words on a street sign

Answer 43

when we say the words in our heads

Answer 44

The maniuplation of auditory information (Acoustic coding) and preserve the order in which information arrives

Answer 45

- Articulatory control system - Phonological store

Answer 46

Inner voice

Answer 47

Subvocal repetition of words and rehearse is spoken acoustic information but also converts written material into acoustic material ready for us to speak

Answer 48

It rehearses spoken acoustic information from the phonological store convert written material to acoustic material and hold information ready for us to speak. This is used to prepare speech to think in words.

Answer 49

Stores words recently hear and receives acoustic information from the environment and auditory information from the articulator control system such as words we hear it in our head - what we are thinking. Written words must be converted spoken words to enter the phonological store

Answer 50

The capacity of the articulatory process is determined by how many words we can say in 2 seconds.

Answer 51

The amount of words we can say in 2 seconds

Answer 52

The visuo-spatial sketchpad is a store for visual or spatial and spatial or visual information that doesn’t rely on rehearsal. It deals with visual and spatial information and the relationship between them

Answer 53

Visual cache and inner scribe

Answer 54

stores visual information

Answer 55

stores spatial information, records the arrangement of objects in the visual field

Answer 56

Through mental pictures and has a limited capacity of 3-4 objects

Answer 57

The episodic buffer is a multi-modal store that combines information from all five senses to create a whole ‘scene’ of an event. This information can then be transferred to long-term memory to create episodic memories.

Answer 58

Limited capacity of 4 chunks

Answer 59

Connects visual, spatial and verbal information and maintains time sequncing.

Answer 60

phonological loop

Answer 61

visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 62

episodic buffer

Answer 63

A component of the working memory model that manages the activity of the three stores and is responsible for directing relevant information to each store and dividing our attention across the stores

Answer 64

- allocates attention and controls attention processes - it controls and coordinates the two slave systems deciding which information is attended to and which parts of the working memory to send that information to

Answer 65

has a limited attentional capacity; if it is controlling one task, it is difficult to do another at the same time

Answer 66

you will have less attention to allocate to whats going on in your visuospaital sketchpad and episodic buffer

Answer 67

Wont have enough attention to perform the other tasks correctly - the CE has been overloaded

Answer 68

if we do lots of demanding tasks at once.

Answer 69

Baddeley - he conducted a lab experiment and investigated the separate existence of the visual spatial sketchpad by art participants to complete two visual task simultaneously. One group of participants did two visual tasks and the second group did one verbal and one visual task. The two visual tasks was tracking a light and describing the F or one visual task and one verbal task simultaneously.

Answer 70

Found that participants performed better when doing one verbal and one visual task because they had to use different working memory stores. He found that participant in more difficulty during the simultaneous visual task and a visual and verbal task and concluded that there must be a separate slave system that has a limited capacity to deal with the visual and spatial information

Answer 71

The tasks in the study relate to the problems with dual task activities and every day life it explains the law why text and driving is banned as they both use the visual spatial sketch part of the working memory model and can lead to poor performance in one of them - application of the model

Answer 72

KF - due to brain damage in a motorcycle accident KF had poor memory for verbal material in the short-term memory but he could only process visual information. This suggests the only has phonological loop has been damaged and supports the existence a separate visual and acoustic stores as suggested by the working model.

Answer 73

There are different stores for storing verbal and visual information Different parts of the brain are active during visual and verbal working memory tasks

Answer 74

He lost the ability to recall verbal information in the phonological loop but could still retain visual information in the short term memory

Answer 75

It is possible to test the theory to see if it is false.

Answer 76

The attentional capacity of the central executive was overloaded

Answer 77

Interference theory and retrieval failure

Answer 78

Interference theory suggests that one memory can interfere with the retrieval of another, making it harder to recall the correct memory. This typically happens when the two memories are similar to each other. Essentially, the confusion between the two memories causes one to get in the way of accessing the other.

Answer 79

Proactive interference and Retroactive interference

Answer 80

Proactive interference is when an old memory interferes with remembering a new memory. what we already known interfers with what we are currently learning

Answer 81

If you have learnt Spanish and are now having difficulty learning french, you may get confused with your French and keep accidentally recalling Spanish words

Answer 82

a new memory interferes with remembering an old memory later learning interferes with earlier learning

Answer 83

Such as you know, your present mobile phone number, but cannot now remember your previous one

Answer 84

Baddeley and Hitch

Answer 85

To investigate the effects of interference and the amount of time that elapsed between learning and recall in everyday life

Answer 86

Rock players were asked to recall the names of team they played earlier in the season. As some players had missed games through injury badly and hitch could assess the effect of the number of interfering games. This represented the interference and the time since the game was played so the decay on recall.

Answer 87

Players who had played the most games showed the most forgetting. Time elapsed alone had little influence on the levels of forgetting.

Answer 88

The finding support the view that forgetting was due to interference rather than decay in everyday life

Answer 89

Many laboratory studies use unrealistic tasks such as the word lists above but some researchers have used more naturalistic ways of studying the effects of interference as this is a field experiment. The research has validity and mundane realism as it was set in real time and was a real situation.

Answer 90

Decay theory is a theory that proposes that memory fades due to the mere passage of time.

Answer 91

Research studies to support the theory = Baddley and Hitch found low levels of recall in players who had played the most games

Answer 92

Baddeley and Hitch's research into interference theory used real-life events, mundane realism which helps support its ecological validity

Answer 93

A limitation of interference theory is that many memory forgetting experiments are conducted in laboratory settings with highly artificial tasks, such as learning two meaningless lists of words within a short period of time.

Answer 94

Tulving - Retrieval failure explanation = the theory is ambiguous as not clear, Tulving found interference affects accessibility rather than availability - info can be retrieved with cues - temporarily unavailable

Answer 95

When information is stored in memory, it’s associated with cues. If these cues aren’t available at recall, the memory cannot be accessed, even though it’s still stored. The memory is available but not accessible.

Answer 96

having a word or name at the tip of the tongue but not being able to recall it is an example of retrieval failure, going upstairs for a pen, but when you get there you cannot remember what you went upstairs for as soon as you return to the place where you first thought about the penny you are more likely to remember the key is the environment which aided the memory

Answer 97

Prompts that we associate with a memory and that help retrieval

Answer 98

Retrieval cues are formed when we form mental links between an experience, and things that happen around the same time as the experience When we re-experience things that occurred around the same time as the experience, this reactivates our memory of the experience

Answer 99

This states that if a queue is to help us retrieve information it must be present at encoding when it is learnt and that retrieval when we recall it if Q are absent at retrieval then they will be forgetting. Some queues are used to link information to help us remember such as pneumonic techniques. (ROYGBIV)

Answer 100

Tulving and Pearlston

Answer 101

To investigate whether the cues from the environment affect recall

Answer 102

Compared recall of 48 words compromising four words from each of 12 categories such as sport food TV. All participants were told to ignore the top categories but on recall only one set of participants were given the top categories as cues

Answer 103

Results showed 40% recall of the words without cues and 60% with the cues

Answer 104

They study provides evidence for retrieval failure. It would seem that the condition who didn't have the categories knew more than they could recall as both groups learned in the same condition if the free recall group had been given the cues, they would be able to recall more words

Answer 105

As a controlled experiment, this research has low ecological validity

Answer 106

occurs when recall depends on an external cue, e.g. the environment/surroundings.

Answer 107

occurs when recall depends on an internal cue, e.g. the feelings/emotions involved (feeling happy, sad, angry, distressed etc.)

Answer 108

Things around us that we experienced at the same time as encoding the memory. -

Answer 109

Things that we felt and thought around the time of encoding a memory. Layla goes to a haunted house where she’s scared out of her wits, and she suddenly remembers the time she was really scared when she was climbing up a steep mountain.

Answer 110

The theory that we forget when we are unable to find a retrieval cue to help us retrieve a memory

Answer 111

Lots of evidence to support the theory: - Tulving and Pearlstone, increases the validity = controlled conditions that limit extraneous variables

Answer 112

As an explanation for forgetting the role of contextual factors may be overstated: Goddon & Badeley's context of land and water are extreme differences: not representative of real life - lack ecological validity

Answer 113

Smiths study support context dependent forgetting: found imagining where learning took place at recall was as effective on recall as being in the same room - also the basic principle of CI

Answer 114

- Godden and Baddeley made participants learn word lists on land and under water. - Godden and Baddeley tested the effect of external cues by testing recall under water or on land. - Participants’ recall was better when they were tested in the same context as they learned the information.

Answer 115

1. Interference theory predicts that participants with more lists to learn would recall less well. Interference theory doesn’t predict that cues have any effect on participant recall 2. Interference theory predicts that participants would recall equally well in cued and free recall 3. Cue-dependent forgetting predicts that participants would learn better when they are given cues

Answer 116

An eyewitness testimony is the ability of people to remember details of events such as accidents or crimes that they have observed.

Answer 117

The accuracy of eyewitness testimony is crucial because inaccurate testimonies may lead to miscarriages of justice, such as wrongful convictions.

Answer 118

The Devlin Report (1976) states that juries cannot convict someone based solely on a single eyewitness testimony; other sources of evidence must be used.

Answer 119

An organised knowledge, belief or feelings about an aspect of the world. Research shows that existing schemas about everyday items influence our memory such that memory for events seems to be active and reconstructive based on existing knowledge.

Answer 120

The process of adjusting memories to fit with expectations, beliefs and stereotypes.

Answer 121

- schemas - leading questions - post event discussion - anxiety

Answer 122

Mental frameworks that we develop from past experiences.

Answer 123

When we retrieve memories, we use pre-existing schemas to fill in missing gaps. Schemas can cause us to misremember events in a way that is consistent with our schemas.

Answer 124

Leading questions and post event discussion

Answer 125

A question that is phrased that it suggests a certain answer. Was the knife in the accused's right hand

Answer 126

Loftus and Palmer Loftus and Palmer investigated how accurately participants could recall a video of a car crash after being asked leading questions about the crash.

Answer 127

Show participants a film of a car crash and asked them to describe what happened to answer the questions. One critical question concern the speed of the car on impact one group was asked how far is the cars going when they hit each other all the groups are asking the same question but with the bird changed to smashed bumped collided or contacted. The verb contacted produced the lowest speed estimate of 31 mph and smash produce the highest speed estimate of 40 mph

Answer 128

- When the verb used to describe the accident was more intense the participants judged the cars as driving more quickly. - The way they asked the question influenced the participants’ memory of how quickly the cars were going. - A week later, when asked a leading question about smashed glass, many participants had a false memory that there was some in the video.

Answer 129

One week later, participants we asked did you see any broken glass? Participants in the smash group were more likely to report seeing broken glass at the accident when there was none?

Answer 130

Response bias explanation and substitution explanation

Answer 131

The wording of a question has no effect on ppts memories, but affects how they answer the question (No change in belief

Answer 132

the wording of a question actually changes the ppts memories. This is demonstrated where participants who were questioned using the verb 'smashed' were more likely to report seeing broken glass than those who were questioned with the verb 'hit'

Answer 133

When co witnesses discuss a crime with each other, their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated

Answer 134

studies participants in pairs. Both participants watched the same scene of a crime from a different angle so that each participant could see different details of event. Both participants discussed what they had seen and then individually completed a test of recall. 71% of the participants recalled details of the event that they could not have seen from the video but had learned in the discussion

Answer 135

Anxiety has a strong emotional and physical impact; evidence shows mixed results for the effect of anxiety on the accuracy of eye witness testimonies

Answer 136

The stress of witnessing an accident/ crime creates anxiety through physiological arousal in the body; the fight or flight response. This increases our alertness and improves our memory of an event as we are more aware of cues in the situation

Answer 137

Yuille and Cutshall

Answer 138

A thief in Vancouver stole from a gun shop but was shot dead by the shop owner. 13 of the 21 witness interviewed by the police agreed to take part in the study. They were interviewed 4 to 5 months after the incident and responses were compared with the original piece interview at this time for shooting They were also asked to write the anxiety at the time of the incident on a scale of one to 7 and asked whether they've had emotional problems since then such a sleeplessness

Answer 139

Recall accurate there was a little change and the amount of information after 4 to 5 months although some details were less accurate such as height and weight estimate the participants who reported the highest level distress for the most accurate 88% competing 75% for the lease stress group

Answer 140

Anxiety produces physiological arousal which prevents us from paying attention to important cues

Answer 141

their accuracy gets better .

Answer 142

, their accuracy gets worse .

Answer 143

Love to show the group of participants the short film of either; A) a person pointed a gun at the cashier and receiving cash or B) a person handling a check to the cashier and receiving cash The results showed that every details with coen the gun condition land in the condition however this is not a real life situation

Answer 144

Fisher and Geiselman as a technique to help the police when interviewing an eyewitness, it is an attempt to maximise the range of retrieval cues.

Answer 145

Report everything Reinstate the context reverse the order change perspective

Answer 146

Witnesses are encouraged to include every detail of the event even if it seems irrelevant. Seemingly trivial details may be important and may be useful to trigger such queue other important memories this relates to the theory of retrieval failure.

Answer 147

The witnesses returned to the crime scene in their mind and reimagined the environment such as the weather in their emotions. This also relates to the related forgetting and relates to the theory of retrieval failure.

Answer 148

Recall events in a different order from the original sequence of events for example start at the end of the event then report what happened in the middle. This is done to prevent people from reporting their expectations of how they must've happened rather than what they have actually happened. This prevents us schemas

Answer 149

Witnesses should recall the incident from other people's perspectives for example what the Perry would have seen during the crime. This also prevents expectations from affecting the way that the crime is described and use schemas

Answer 150

reconstruct them based on incomplete fragments.

Answer 151

an interview technique designed to improve memory accuracy.

Answer 152

Showed 89 ppts a police training film simulating violent crimes. 48 hours later they were interviewed about the film by an experienced LA police officer using either condition A: cognitive interview Condition B: standard police interview Condition C: interview using hypnosis

Answer 153

Found that the Cognitive interview elicted the most accurate recall and there was no significant difference in the number or errors made - concluding the CI made the ppts less susceptible to leading questions

Answer 154

was designed to improve the accuracy of EWT

Answer 155

In 1987 Geiselman and Fisher designed a modified version of the cognitive interview that focussing on building a trusting relationship between the interviewer and the witness

Answer 156

Fisher they developed additional elements of the CI to focus on the social dynamics of the social situation

Answer 157

- know when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it - reduce eyewitness anxiety, minimise distractions, get the eyewitness to speak slowly and ask open ended questions

Answer 158

False memories