Gender Flashcards
(15 cards)
Sex and Gender
- Knowledge
DEFINITION - SEX
- sex is a persons biological status which is classified as either male or female
- sex is determined by one pair of chromosomes ( last ones ) and for females this is XX and for males it is XY
- these chromosomes influence our hormonal and atanomical structures which distinguish between males and females such as reproductive organs
- sex is innate and biologically determined so it is fixed and cannot be changed - nature
DEFINITION - GENDER
- described as masculine or feminine and gender reflects attitudes, behaviours and social roles that we have associated with being male or female
- unlike sex which is fixed, gender is fluid and can be changed depending on cultural expectations or social norms
- influence by nurture
GENDER DYSPHORIA
- a psychological disorder which is recognised by the DSM-5 and is when males or females experience a mismatch between their biological status and their gender identify
- it can be characterised as having a strong persistent identification with the opposite gender and discomfort within their own sex
- gender reassignment surgery - gender dysphoric people can get their sexual identify to be in line with their gender identity
SEX-ROLE STEREYOTYPES
- a set of expectations shared by a culture or social group about how males and females should behave
- these expectations are communicated through society and reinforced by peers, parents, media and schools
TV ADVERT RESEARH
- study of tv adverts was done and found that men were more likely to be found represented in autonomous roles in a professional context whereas women we more likely to be seen in familial roles in a domestic setting
- SRS do exist and are reinforced by media
BABY STUDY
- baby girls and boys were dressed irrespective to their actual sex
- babies dressed as boys were more likely to be given a toy hammer to play with and encouraged to be active and adventurous
- babies dressed as girls were given cuddly toys and told they were pretty
- SRS do exist and are reinforced by members of society like parents
Androgny
- Knowledge
DEFINITION
- a personality type where an individual has a balance between male and female traits, attitudes and behaviours
- a women or a man can be androgynous
HIGHLY ANDROGNY
- bem suggested that high androgny is associated with psychological wellbeing
- this is because individuals who are psychologically masculine and feminine is equal measures are better equipped to adapt to a range of situations
- non androgynous people have fewer traits so lesser equipped to adapt to a range of situations
MEASURING ANDROGNY
- sandra bem developed a method to measure it
- she called it the bem sex role inventory ( BSRI )
- the scale presented 20 characteristics originally asssociated with males and 20 with females and 20 neutral traits
- respondents would rate themselves on a 7 point scale for each item
- 1 = never true of me 2 = always true of me
- classified as either masculine , feminine , androgynous , undifferentiated
RESULTS
- high M , low F = masculine
- high F , low M = feminine
- high M , high F = androgynous
- low M , low F = undifferentiated
EXAMPLES
- masculine - leaders and dominant
- females - shy and cheerful
- neutral - happy and helpful
Androgny
- Evaluation
- QUANTATIVE METHOD
- bsri provides a quantitiative measure of data
- this type of data is not prone to investigator bias, it is objective, it can be easily scientifically analysed so objective conclusions can be drawn
- this means gender identity can be assessed in a more scientifically credible and objective way in research studies which use the bsri
- this gives gender studies more validity
COUNTERPOINT : quantitiative data is not very detailed and a qualatative approach may be a more useful method in measuring gender identity for a more in depth insight - CULTURE BIAS
- developed over 40 years ago
- stereotypical ideas of masculinity and femininity traits have changed significantly since then
- it was also developed using people from the US only
- this means the bsri is based on us gender norms and not universal gender stereotypes
- therefore the bsri can only be used to measure gender identity in the us and not across cultures as this would be imposed etic
- so it may be outdated and not an appropriate measure of gender identity in modern day - SELF REPORT BIAS
- it is a self report method - people need to rate themselves on traits from a 7 point scale
- very subjective as peoples interpretation of the scale may be different
- this is also prone to social desirability bias - data gathered is not valid
- people may also answer inaccurately as they don’t read carefully, too quickly or have fatigue or boredom
- gender identity is also very complex so people may not have insight into their own gender identity
- bsri is not objective or scientifically credible
- not valid measure
The Role of Chromosomes and Hormones
- Knowledge
CHROMOSOMES
- carry information of living cells in the form of genes
- there are 46 and 23 pairs and the 23rd pair is the one which determines biological sex
- structure for females - XX and for males it is XY
- an egg carries the X chromosome
- a sperm carries either the X or Y chromosome
- the babies gender is determined by which chromosome is present in the fertilising sperm cell
- if it is the X one then the baby is a female , if its Y the baby is a male
SRY GENE
- the Y choromosome carries a gene called the sex-determining reigion Y ( SRY gene )
- this gene caused testes to develop in the embryo
- testes produce androgens
HORMONES
- sex is determined by chromosomes but gender development comes about through the influence of hormones
- prenatally in the womb, H acts upon brain development and causes the development of reproductive organs
- at puberty, hormone activity triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics
- males and females produce many of the same hormones however in different concentrations which causes different gender development
TESTOSTERONE
- a male androgen which controls the development of male sex organs during foetal development and is linked to aggression
- it is present in little quantaties in women
- if a genetic male produces no T during foetal development then male sex organs will not produce
- if a genetic female produces high levels of T during foetal development then male sex organs may appear
OESTROGEN
- female hormone determines female sexual characteristics like menstrual cycle
- it also causes women to experience heightened emotions and iratibility during their menstrual cycle
- when these efects become diagnosable it is known as premenstrual tension or premenstrual syndrome
OXYTOCIN
- this is present in larger quantities in men than women
- it reduces the effects of the stress hormone cortisol and factilitiaies bonding and stimulates lactation which allows for breastfeeding
- it is produced in much larger amounts during labour and after child birth which makes mothers love their babies
The Role of Chromosomes and Hormones
- Evaluation
- SUPPORT FOR TESTOSTERONE
- research supports it as males who had low levels of T underwent T therapy and it was found that as a result their sexual behaviour, mood, libido and muscle strength had improved
- this supports the idea that T has a direct influence on male physical and sexual characteristics
- also supports the biological theories claim that T plays a key role in male gender development
- this means that the biological explanation has more validity - CULTURE BIAS
- individualistic cultures value masculine traits whereas collectivist cultures value female traits
- people from individualistic cultures are more likely to express m traits and peope from collectivist cultures are more likely to express f traits
- however if gender is completely biological as suggested then we would expect universal gender traits across cultures
- suggests that gender development is influenced by social factors such as cultural norms and not hormones
- limits the biological explanation - REAL WORLD APPLICATION
- biological theory has helped us to understand that t causes development of male c , o causes development of female c and oxytocin factilitates bonding
- this knowledge enables us to develop and range of different hormone therapies and use them
- t therapy can be used to support female - male trans people
- o therapy can be used to support male - female trans people
- oxytocin therapy can be used to support struggling mothers with postpartum bonding with their new borns
- therefore it has real world practical value
Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns
- Knowledge
KLINEFELTERS
- an atypical sex chromosome patterns which are present in biological males
- people with this syndrome have an extra X chromosome so their sex choromose structure is XXY
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
- reduced body hair
- some breast development during puberty
- softening or rounding of body contours
- long gangly limbs
- underdeveloped genitals
- problems with co ordination and clumsiness
- susceptible to health issues most commonly found in women like breast cancer
PSYCHOLOGICAL C
- problems with developed language and reading abilities
- passive
- shy
- lack of interest in sexual activities
- don’t respond well to situations which are stressful
- problems with executive functions
TURNERS SYNDROME
- atypical sex chomrome pattern found in females
- it is when an individual has lost one of the two X chromosomes so their structure is XO
PHYSICAL C
- no menstrual cycle
- ovaries fail to develop - sterile
- have a broad shield chest
- low set ears
- webbed neck
- physically immature - look like pre buesent girl
PSYCHOLOGICAL C
- higher than average reading ability
- spatial and visual memories and mathematical abilities are lower the average
- socially immature - cannot relate to peers and find it difficult to fit in
Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns
- Evaluation
- NATURE AND NURTURE
- comparing the psychological and behavioural differences between individuals with typical and atypical sex chromosome patterns allows researchers to infer that any differenes have a biological basis
- for example people w T syndrome have higher verbal ability than typical females which suggests that these traits are due to abnormal chromosome structure
- supports the nature debate which suggests gender development in innate biological basis
COUNTERPOINT : some people argue that these observed differences are a a result of environmental or social factors rather than just biology alone
- example people with turner’s syndrome are socially immature because others may treat them immaturly and as a result it reinforces this behaviour
- suggests that gender development is shaped by nurture and not just biology alone
- interactionist approach may be more comprehensive - REAL WORLD APPLICATION
- research into atypical sex patterns allow increased awareness of both syndromes
- people can be treated earlier and more accurately for both
- people can be identified and treated for the syndromes so that they can manage it and control it and continue to live a successful happy life
- improves quality of life - SMALL SAMPLE
- research into both use small unrepresentative samples - use the people who have the most severe symptoms
- typical symptoms of it are distorted
- many people with klinefelters do not actually experience extreme cognitive or psychological problems and can actually have highly successful academic lives , personal and career lives
- typical ideas of both syndromes are exaggerated and does apply to all
Cognitive Explanations - Kohlberg
- Knowledge
DEFINITION
- a cognitive development theory - a child’s understanding of gender development becomes more sophisticated with age
- gender developement progresses through 3 stages
STAGE 1 - GENDER IDENTITY
- around age of 2
- when a child is able to correctly identify whether they are a boy or a girl
- they can identify if others are males or females but they rely on external appearances only
- their understanding of gender is limited and does not go beyond simple labelling
- don’t understand that gender is permanent and they believe that it changes as you get older
STAGE 2 - GENDER STABILITY
- around age of 4
- when a child understands that their gender is fixed and cannot be changed and wil remain the same as they become older
- they cannot apply this same logical to other people - they still rely on external appearances to determine gender
- they get confused by changes in external appearances
- believe that people can change their gender by engaging in activities which are associated with the opposite gender
STAGE 3 - GENDER CONSTANCY
- around age of 6-7
- when a child recognises that their own gender AND others remains fixed across times and situations
- no longer confused by external changes in appearance
- identify and imitate the role models of their own gender
- start to behave in a gender appropriate way
- gender stereotypes emerge
- look for evidence to confirm their gender understanding
Cognitive Explanations - Kohlberg
- Evaluation
- RESEARCH SUPPORT FOR CONSTANCY
- research supports the claim that during gender constancy stage, children develop gender stereotypes
- this is because children aged 4 suggested that playing with a boy playing with a toy doll was fine, however those aged 6+ said that it was wrong
- this supports kohlbergs theory that once constancy is achieved children begin to behave in gender appropriate ways and they begin to gender stereotype
- increases the validity of his theory
COUNTERPOINT : other research suggests constancy does not develop by age of 6, this is because children aged 4 reported feeling food playing with gender appropriate toys and feeling bad when doing the opposite
- this contradicts kohlbergs findings - FLAWED METHODOLOGY
- gender constancy is assessed by showing children images of people and then changing their clothes or hair and asking them if their gender has changed
- however a study done on 3-5 year olds were asked in a more direct way by showing them a picture of someone naked with genitalia showing followed by a picture of the same person in changed clothes
- over half of them accurately showed gender constancy
- previous research misinterprets children’s true understanding of gender development due to faulty methodology
- kohlbergs theory does not accurately reflect when gender constancy develops - CROSS CULTURAL APPLICATION
- cross cultural research of GD has found gender identify, stability and constancy appeared in the same sequence across multiple cultures
- if it was based on social factors we would expect difference in gender I,S AND C across cultures
- suggests that kohlbergs theory of gender development being biologically driven and occurs through cognitive maturation is accurate
- supports kohlbergs theory and increases its validity of it being a universal explanation for gender development
Cognitive Explanations - Gender Schema Theory
- Knowledge
DEFINITION
- a cognitive development theory - believers that children’s understanding of gender development becomes more sophisticated with age
- development of a child’s gender scheme shapes their gender development
SCHEMA
- mental packages of info and expectations we have about the world and is developed througb experience
GENDER SCHEMA
- mental packages of info and expectations ,beliefs etc we have about gender which is developed through experience
- gender schemes guide a a child’s understanding of their own gender and their gender appropriate behaviours
- children also develop gender identity by the age of 2-3
- they begin to search the environment for info to develop their existing schema
DETERMINING BEHAVIOUR
- schemas develop overtime to include information such as gender appropriate behaviours and personality traits
- these schemas are formed on sreeyotpes
- these schemas then direct a childs understanding of their behaviour and themselves and the appropriate behaviours for their gender
- by the age of 6 children will develop fixed stereotypical ideas of what is approaches for their own gender
- this explains why they may disregard or ignore info which does not fit within their existing schemas
INGROUPS VS OUTGROUPS
- child wil pay more attention to and have better understanding of the schemas appropriate to their own gender ( ingroups ) as opposed to the other ( outgroups )
- by the age of 8 the child has developed schemas of both genders
Cognitive Explanations - Gender Schema Theory
- Evaluation
- RESEARCH SUPPORT
- found that chilren were more better able to remember photographs of gender appropriate behaviours than gender inappropriate beavhours
- they also tried to change the gender of the person in the gender inappropriate when asked to recall one week later that it better fit behaviours which are gender appropriate
- supports the idea that by the age of 6 children develop fixed an distinct stereotypes of gender approaite behaviour and will ignore anything which does not fit within their existing schemas
- therefore gives the theory more validity - EARLIER GENDER IDENTITY
- the theory suggest that children develop their gender identity by the age of 2-3
- however research finds that children as little as 19 months have been able to identify whether they were a boy or a girl and this is also when children begin being able to communicate
- suggests that children even younger than 19 months have gender identity but cannot communicate it
- suggests that the theory underestimates children’s gender identity ability
- limits its validity - CULTRUAL DIFFERENCES
- the theory suggests that gender schemas are based on stereotypes and that these gender shchemas guide a child’s behaviours and aitutdes towards gender
- traditional cultures have strict rigid gender stereotypes and children being raised in these cultures may produce rigid gender schemas so they acquire rigid gender beliefs compared to less traditional cultures
- has high explanatory power
Psychodynamic Explanation
- Knowledge
DEFINITION
- freud came up with a general development theory which includes children going through 5 psychosexual stages
- oral, anal, phallic, latency, gential
- phallic stage is where gender development occurs
- this is around age of 2-3 and the pleasure focus is the genital area
- boys experience oedipus complex and girls experience electra complex - important in general identity formation
PRE PHALLIC CHILDREN
- before the phallic stage children have no concept of gender
- they do not recognise themselves as either a boy or a girl so they don’t attach this label to themselves or anyone else
OEDIPUS COMPLEX
- a boy develops incestous feelings towards his mother and a jealous murderous hatred towards his father
- he sees his father in the way of being able to possess his mother
- overtime the boy realises that the father is moore powerful than them so they develop a fear of being castrated by their father for loving their mother
- they eventuallly give up this love and begin to identify with their father instead
ELECTRA COMPLEX
- girls experience penis envy
- they believe they and their mother are in competition for their fathers love
- they develop a double resentment towards their mother
1. they think the mother acts as a love rival in the way of possessing her father
2. they blame the mother for having no penis as they believe they were castrated when the mother castrated herself
- overtim girls will accept that they do not have a penis and will substitute this envy with the need for wanting children and identify with the mother to resolve the conflict
IDENTIFICATION - children of both sexes will identity with the same sex parent to resolve their complex during the phallic stage e.g moral value and attitudes etc
INTERNALISATION - children will take on board the gender identity of their same sex parent
LITTLE HANS
- represented the oedipus complex
- he had a morbid fear of being bitten by a horse
- this stemmed from him seeing a horse collapse and die on a street
- freud interpreted this as his fear of being bitten as his fear of being castrated by his father because he ‘loves his mother’
- he transferred this fear of his father onto the horse through the unconsious defence mechanism of displacement
Psychodynamic Explanation
- Evaluation
- RESEARCH SUPPORT
- freud suggests that in order for boys to develop normal gender identity they need to identify with their same sex parent to resolve the oedipus complex in the phallic stage, this suggests that boys with no father figure will not develop normal gender identity
- research found that 75% of boys who were identitied as gender disturbed had actually had no biological father or substitute father figure living with them
- this supports his psychoanalytic theories claims and therefore increases its validity
COUNTERPOINT : other research suggests different , a study compared children from 63 lesbian families and 68 traditional families
- to was found that the children raised in lesbian families did not have a pressure to conform to gender stereyotypes, they didn’t believe their gender was superior and they did not have any differences in development of their gender identity
- this contradicts freud as it suggests that a father figure is not necessary for healthy gender development - PSEUDOSCIENTIFIC
- freuds theory is based on a case study of little hans which is highly subjective
- his oedipus and electra complex are also at the unconscious level so cannot be empirically tested and are unfalisifiable
- as a result his theory lacks scientific credibility as it does not meet the aims of science such as objectivity, falsifiability and empirical testing - NOT UNIVERSAL
- many children growing up in single or same sex parent households where their is absence of a same sex parent actually develop normal gender identity
- however freuds theory claims that these children will not be able to resolve their conflict during the phallic stage due t having no same six parent to identify with so they will not develop normal gender identity
- this limits his psychoanalytic theory and makes it an incomplete explanation
- alternative explanations such as gender schema or SLT may be more of a complete explanation
Social Learning Explanation
- Knowledge
DEFINITION
- gender behaviour is learnt through observation and imitation of role models and through direct or vicarious reinforcement of displaying gender appropriate behaviours
DIRECT REINFROCEMENT
- children are reinforced for demonstrating gender a behaviours
- children are more likely to repeat behaviours that have been reinforced
- differential reinforcement - girls and boys are reinfroced for different behaviours which they then repeat
- example for a boy - reinfroced for being active / assertive - for a girl - reinfroced for being passive / gentle
- it is because of this DF that children learn different gender a behaviours
- its through this DF that children learn their gender identity
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT
- children observe another person being rewarded for displaying gender a behaviours so they are more likely to imitate that behaviour - gender a behaviours are learnt
- example : a girl observing her mother get a compliment for wearing a dress and makeup - they will imitate
- punishment - a child observes someone receiving an unfavourable consequence for displaying gender inapproite behaviours so they are less likely to imitate and therefore gender ia behaviours are not learnt
- example : boy sees his classmate being teased for being feminine so he wont imitate this behaviour
IDENTIFICATION
- process by which a child attaches themselves to a person who they have similarities with or they see their characteristics as desirable
- identification makes imitation of observed behaviours more likely
- the person who the child identifies with is known as the role model
- the role model tends to be the same sex, attractive or of high status
- friends, parents , siblings, celebs etc
MODELLING
- role models pov - the act of demonstrating gender behaviour which may be imitated by observer
- observer pov - imitating behaviour displayed by role model
- children will observe and imitate gender specfic behaviours of the same sex role model which shapes their gender identity and reinforces stereyotypical gender norms
MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES
- 4 cognitive processes which are crucial for gender behaviour to be learnt
+ attention - child must pay attention to behaviour displayed by role model
+ retention - child must remember the behaviour modelled by role model
+ motivation - child’s desire to imitate this behaviour - comes from wanting to be like the role model or wanting to receive the reward associated with that behaviour
+ motor reproduction - child’s physical capability of repeating that behaviour themselves
Social Learning Explanation
- Evaluation
- ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATION
- slt suggests that gender development is shaped by observatio and imitation of role models and through direct or vicarious reinforcement of gender a behaviours
- however the biological explanation suggests that testosterone explains male behaviour like aggression
- this may explain why boys engage in rough play despite not being reinfroced which the slt can’t explain
- this means it ignores the influence of biological factors and is reductionist - not a complete explanation
- an interactionist approach which considers biological and social factors may provide a more holistic and comprehensive explanation - REAL WORLD APPLICATION
- the slt suggests that gender stereotypes are formed by observing and imitating behaviour displayed by role models
- this has led to real word application such as using the media to provide androgynous role models on tv - female engineers and make nurses etc - challenges traditional gender roles
- children may imitate and observe this behaviour and form less rigid gender stereotypes
- this promotes gender equality and drivers gender roles in society
- gives the explanation practical value - EVIDENCE AGINST DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT
- parents reinfroce children gender behaviours due to innate gender differences which are already there
- for example a boy may be reinfroced for being active however they are naturally like this anyway due to hormonal differences
- suggests that differentiating reinforcement does not result in behavioural gender differences but rather IS a result of it
- limits the explanations and reduces its validity
