Research Methods

Question 1

aims

Answer 1

• general outcome that a researcher is trying to study or investigate

Question 2

hypothesis

Answer 2

• precise, testable statement which states the relationship between variables

1. directional H - states the direction of difference or relationship
2. non - directional H - general outcome prediction / no specific statement of the relationship or difference
3. null H - researcher is almost certain that the IV will have no effect on the DV

Question 3

types of experiments
( LAB )

Answer 3

• the iv is directly manipulated and the DV is measured

strengths :
- controlled, well documented procedures so can be replicated to test validity and is standardised
- specialist equipment can be used to help the aim of experiment
- cause and effect of IV and DV can be seen as they are isolated

limitations :
- demand characteristics more likely as ppts know they are in research
- artificial and does not replicate real life situations - ecological validity lower

Question 4

types of experiments
( NATURAL )

Answer 4

• iv is naturally occurring and the dv is manipulated, takes place in natural setting

strengths :
- real life setting so ecological validity is higher
- demand characteristics are reduced
- can investigate impractical or unethical issues

limitations :
- extraneous variables can occur - validity decreases
- not replicable as it is not a standardised procedure
- ethical guidelines can be breached

Question 5

types of experiments
( FIELD )

Answer 5

• similar, natural environment and the both variables occur naturally

strengths :
- demand characteristics reduced
- ecological validity is higher because of real life setting
- some situations we can see cause and effect of iv and dv

limitations :
- ethics - people do not know they are being observed, no informed consent
- extraneous variables can occur reducing validity
- ppts rare random so might be biased samples so population validity is decreased

Question 6

types of experiments
( QUASI )

Answer 6

• iv is based on pre - existing differences between people, DV is measured

strengths :
- similar to a lab, has high degree of control
- can make comparisons between different people

limitations :
- ppts are not randomly allocated to conditions so ppt variables may act as a confounding variable
- caudal rls are not demonstrated

Question 7

experimental designs
( INDEPENDENT GROUPS )

Answer 7

• different ppts take part in both conditions

strengths :
- order effects,demand characteristics etc are reduced
- one set of stimulus materials are needed

limitations :
- less economical because more participants are required which is costly and time consuming
- different participants produce different results so there may be an issue of ppt variables

Question 8

experimental designs
( REPEATED MEASURES )

Answer 8

• when the same ppt takes part in both conditions, take part twice

strengths :
- no individual differences between ppts so there is less of an effect of ppt variables on results
- fewer ppts required so more cost effective

limitations :
- order effects may be a problem - needs counterbalancing
- demand characteristics can occur reducing
- two sets of stimulus materials are needed so more expensive and extraneous variables

Question 9

experimental designs
( MATCHED PAIRS )

Answer 9

• two different ppts take part in each condition but they are matched on key variables like age, gender, IQ etc
• attempt to reduce condfounding variables and ppt variables

strengths :
- no order effects or demand c so validity is increased
- one set of stimulus materials needed

limitations :
- difficult to match ppts and so ca be time - consuming and there still may be a chance of ppt variables
- attrition - if one drops out, data for that whole pair is lost

Question 10

observational techniques
( NATURALISTIC VS CONTROLLED )

Answer 10

naturalistic :
- takes place in a real - life setting where the obszerver does not intrude and people just go about their own business and behave more naturally

strengths :
- demand characteristics are reduced as people don’t know the are being observed , act naturally
- investigator effects also reduced
- ecological validity is higher because its a real life setting
limitations :
- not replicable, can’t use the test-retest method as there is no standardised procedure
- extraneous variables may occur

controlled :
- takes place in strict, controlled conditions often in a lab

strengths :
- extraneous variables can be controlled so there is no interference, more validity
- can also be replicated because of controlled procedure
limitations :
- not generalisable to everyday life as it is an artificial setting

Question 11

observational techniques
( OVERT VS COVERT )

Answer 11

covert
- ppts are not aware that they are being observed and the researcher observes while hidden such as using a one way mirror

strengths :
- investigator effects and demand characteristics are reduced as they don’t know they are being observed so more natural behaviour and representative behaviour of real life is shown
limitations :
- ethically questionable because they are not able to give informed consent, can’t withdraw their data etc

overt :
- ppts are aware that they are taking place in a study

strengths :
- more ethically acceptable as they are able to give consent, find out the aims of research and decide if they participate sp more psychologically protected
limitations :
- investigator effects and demand characteristics are higher because they are aware and may want to please the researchers results

Question 12

observational techniques
(PARTICPANT VS NON PARTICIPANT)

Answer 12

particpant :
- when researcher becomes apart of the group that they are researching

strengths :
- gain more insight and increase validity of the results as they wont miss any behaviours and overall have a more comprehensive understanding
limitations :
- less objectivity and there is more likely to be demand characteristics and investigator effects due to the close proximity of the researcher which would impact reliability of results

non particpant :
- researcher observes from afar

strengths :
- more objectivity , less chance of investigator effects as everyone behaves naturally and the researcher simply observes from a distance and so more validity
limitations :
- loss of insight as the observer has decreased proximity, more likely to miss crucial behaviours etc

Question 13

observational techniques
( STRUCTURED VS UNSTRUCTURED )

Answer 13

structured :
- behaviour is coded using behavioural categories

strengths :
- high rates of inter - observer reliability as comparisons between different groups of people can be made
limitations :
- less rich in data and so lower internal validity as researchers may miss important behaviours

unstructured :
- every instance of behaviour is recorded and detailed

strengths :
- more rich in data as everything is specifically recorded and so higher internal validity
limitations :
- lower rates of inter - observer reliability as it depends on the observer and what they record may be bias of what is of value to them

Question 14

observational design
( BEHAVIOURAL CATEGORIES )

Answer 14

• these are target behaviours which need to be observed and are ivided into categories
• need to be observable and measurable
• need to be structured and objective
• must include all possible forms of the behaviour
• needs to have exclusive categories

strengths :
- turn qualitative data into quantitative data

limitation :
- sometimes may be difficult to accurately have thee categories be clear which will impact results of the experiment

Question 15

observational design
( TIME SAMPLING )

Answer 15

• when behaviour is recorded every time during a pre established time frame e.g. every 30 seconds

strengths :
- reduces the number of observations that need to be made - more structured

limitation :
- unrepresentative as it misses behaviour which may occur outside of this time frame

Question 16

observational design
( EVENT SAMPLING )

Answer 16

• this is when behaviour is recorded every time it occurs for a target individual or group

strengths :
- records infrequent behaviour that may be missed during time sampling

limitations :
- complex behaviours may be oversimplified which reduces validity

Question 17

self report techniques
( QUESTIONNAIRES )

Answer 17

• questionnaires allow for ppts to snapper freely , expressing heir own honest opinion
  and can be done using open and closed questions

OPEN Q’s :
- question which allow for the ppt to answer freely and they help to generate qualitative data

strengths : reduces researcher bias, especially if the questionnaire is anonymous, they wont be influenced by researchers pre determined responses and expectations so is more comprehensive way of gaining data

limitation : people may answer in a socially desirable way to present themselves in a positive light and so their response is not natural and so lacks internal validity

CLOSED Q’s :
- predetermined set of responses and help generate quantitative data
- can be checklist, liiert scale, yes or no etc

strengths :
- quantitative data and so we can present this statistically or in a graphical format
- this means that we can analyse trends, patterns etc much more easily

limitations :
- may be open to reponse bias as they may answer yes to all questions without actually reading it and so lacks validity again , also is restrictive so detailed data cannot be obtained

Question 18

self report techniques
( INTERVIEWS )

Answer 18

STRUCTURED :
- this usually include a set of pre decided questions, shame ones are asked to everyone and a interview schedule is often used

strengths :
- provides quantitative data which is easier to analyse to compare trends patterns et either statistically or on a graph
- also can be replicated for reliability as it is a standardised questionnaire so other researchers can use it

limitations :
- investigator effects may be present

UNSTRUCTURED :
- more relaxed environment, almost like a coversation, provides qualitative data strengths

strengths :
- investigator effects are reduced which increases validity of the findings as ppts are able to openly justify and explain their answers, also less demand characteristics
- provides more rich and insightful data

limitations :
- time consuming and costly, difficult to analyse such data as it needs to undergo content analysis first

SEMI - STRUCTURED :
- mixture of both types

strengths :
- validity is increased as ppts are less likely to answer in a socially desirable way so that bias is eliminated as they can express their opinions more freely

limitations :
- difficult to analyse qualitative data
- investigator effects may be present too

Question 19

correlations

Answer 19

• positive - as one variable increases so does the other
• negative - as one variable increases, the other decreases
• zero - there is no relationship between the two variables

strengths :
- they are quick and economical to carry out as they use pre -existing data and so are easier to conduct
- are able to investigate impractical topics such as ones which would be unethical in a lab as no variable is manipulated
- use precise method and allow for further research to be conducted

limitations :
- don’t establish cause and effect between the two variables
- can only identify a linear rl and not curvilinear
- third variable could be at play

Question 20

case studies

Answer 20

• a detailed analysis of an individual, establishment or real life event
• they often investigate behaviour which is rare and calls for a larger scale study
• data can be collected and analysed and provides a starting point for further research
• examples include little hans, little albert, hm and kf etc

strengths :
- allow us to investiagte impractical or unethical issues which we can’t do in a lab - example is genie where researchers were able to see the long term effects of failure to form an attachment but this could not be done with humans if it did not occur naturally
- unique cases challenge ideas and theories which allow for hypothesis for future research
- provide rich and insightful data which is often overlooked in experiments which manipulate variables

limitations :
- methodological issues - if we investigate one individual or a isolated event we cannot generalise the findings to a population which reduces external and pop validity
- open to researcher bias and subjectivity, example is freud who created a whole theory based on what he observed with little hans so validity is reduced

Question 21

sampling
( RANDOM )

Answer 21

• when particpant are selected randomly, a target population is identified and then the lottery method is used such as a computer generator or names out of a hat to pick the participants
• every particpant has an equal chance of selection

strengths :
- free from researcher bias, the selection is done through computers etc nd so the researcher has no input on who is selected for the study, meaning it can be more representative and generalised to a wider target population

limitations :
- difficult and time consuming to obtain the participants and if they don’t want to take part you may end up with a volunteer sample instead

Question 22

sampling
( SYSTEMATIC )

Answer 22

• pre determined system is used to select ppts
• use a sampling frame to identify an organise the target population
• a sample system is then used ( e.g every 5th person ) and researcher works their way down the sampling frame until selection is complete
• they may start from a random point to reduce bias

strengths :
- researcher bias is reduced as it uses pre determined system and so esaecrher has no influence on who is actually being selected, therefore findings can be generalised and representative

limitation :
- time consuming and difficult to obtain and again if one person does not want to take part you may end up with a different type of sample
- may not actually be representative as every nth person may have a common characteristic and so cannot generalise findings to target pop

Question 23

sampling
( STRATIFIED )

Answer 23

• subgroups within a population are identified
• participants are obtained based on the stratum in proportion to their occurrence within the population

strengths :
- researcher bias is reduced as the ppts are from a identified stratum and so the researcher has no influence on who they will select and will serve to provide their aims , this means the sample is more representative and more validity

limitations :
- time consuming and diffifult to obtain a target population and divide them into groups etc
- subgroups identified do not reflect all individual differences so maybe might not be as representative for target populations as suggested

Question 24

sampling
( OPPORTUNITY )

Answer 24

• when ppts are selected who are readily available and willing to take part in the moment of the study being conducted

strengths :
- easy, convenient and quick for the researcher to gain ppts and is less costly as well

limitations :
- issues of bias such as researcher bias as they may be subjective of who they select and want to take part so it is not representative of the target population meaning the findings cannot be generalised
- also because it is from a specific area the target population is also not represented

Question 25

sampling ( VOLUNTEER )

Answer 25

- when ppts self - select themselves when asked or through an advert strengths : - quick and easier to obtain as well and has ppts who are more engaged limitations : - introduces volunteer bias as they may be curious of the resrach

Question 26

pilot studies

Answer 26

- small scale prototypes of the study which is carried out in advance to the actual research to test if there are any problems with : 1. experimental design 2. instructions for ppts 3. measuring instruments - such as behavioural categories for observational research or questionnaires, they can be checked and modified if necessary - ensures that time, money and effort is not wasted on flawed methodology and and the sample will be smaller but does still need to be representative of the target population

Question 27

types of procedures

Answer 27

single - blind : - when the ppt does not know the aims of research or what condition they are being placed in - information is not revealed until the end of the study to ensure that there is no confounding effects of demand characteristics double - blind : - ppt and researcher do not know aims of the investigation - third party usually conducts the investigation without fully knowing the purpose - usually used in drug trials control groups + conditions : - control groups are used alongside a experimental group to see comparisons - e.g if there is an increase in x in experimental group but not control, they can conclude that it was because of the iv - controlled conditions in control group as well such as eliminating any extraneous variables etc.

Question 28

research issues

Answer 28

extraneous variables - anything apart from the iv that has an effect on the dv and so effects the results examples are : 1. situational variables - in relation to the research situation such as lighting , weather, time of day etc 2. particpant variables - in relation to the the research particpants such as age, gender etc we can control these through : 1. random allocation - ensuring ppts ate randomly allocated to their condition, eliminates particpant variables in the form of individual differences which can influence results 2. counterbalancing - helps to reduce order effects in the repeated measures design by halving ppts and getting one half to take part in one order of conditions and the other half take part in reverse order, then swap 3. randomisation - trials are presented in a random order to reduce bias of what the order of trails might present 4. standardisation - when situational variables in a study are kept identical so any changes in data can be concluded to be the IV and findings can be replicated in subsequent occasions 5. demand characteristics - when ppt knows aim of study and therefore does not behave naturally but rather to please researcher and their results, can control it using a single - blind procedure 6. investigator effects - when the researcher consciously or subconsciously influences their own results to fit the aim of their study, control it by using a double blind procedure

Question 29

dealing with ethical issues - protection from harm

Answer 29

1. protection from harm 2. this is when the individual is protected from amy physical or psychological harm and the threat should not be any greater than what they experience in every day life 3. they could end up with serious harm that can have long term effects on their life 4. should be protected by being reminded that they have the right to withdraw, if there is great psychological harm being caused the research should be terminated and the ppt should have access to counselling or support after if necessary

Question 30

dealing with ethical issues - informed consent

Answer 30

1. informed consent 2. this is when the ppt should give their fully informed consent to the researcher to take part in the study, aims of the research should be made clear to them to inform their decision 3. without this, they could be taking part in research which goes against their own beliefs and views 4. different ways to deal with it are getting : - presumptive consent - when a sample of target population are introduced to the research and any forms of deception are outlined and if they agree to take part then it can be assumed future participants also would so consent is generalised - prior general consent - when ppts are introduced to a range of different studies and they include deception and if they agree to take part they essentially agree to being deceived in the actual study - retrospective consent - when the ppt is told the aims and nature of research after and they give their consent after the research has taken place

Question 31

dealing with ethical issues - deception

Answer 31

1. deception 2. when the ppt is not aware of what is going on, they are mislead or information is kept from them delibaretly 3. they may take part in research which goes against their own beliefs and views and they can become distressed without given their fully informed consent 4. they should be fully debriefed after study is complete and told the true aims and nature of research, they should be given the right to withdraw publication of their results and given researchers contact to ask further questions

Question 32

dealing with ethical issues - confidentiality and privacy

Answer 32

1. confidentiality and privacy 2. when the ppts should have their information protected under the data protection act and the shoul be given privacy of information they do not wish to share 3. other people could access their info and they may feel embarrassed if a skilled researcher makes them give more info than needed 4. they should be able to keep anonymity by not having their information like their name age etc published and should go by a number instead, any video or written info should be destroyed afterwards and they should be able to withdraw at any stage

Question 33

dealing with ethical issues - right to withdraw

Answer 33

1. right to withdraw 2. this is when the ppt should be given the opportunity to withdraw at any stage and is reminded of it too 3. they can become distressed and so are not protected from harm 4. end of procedure ppts should be fully debriefed and told aim and nature of research and should be allowed to withdraw publication of their results and contact details of experimenter should be given so they can ask further questions

Question 34

peer review

Answer 34

- this is an independent assessment process which is done before the research is publish - it helps to assess the following : PEER : provides recommendations of whether it should be published or not and also if it needs to be revised VIEWS : validity of research ARE : assess the appropriateness of the procedure and methodology SO : significance of the research to a wider context OVER-RATED : originality of the research and other related research is listed strengths : - conducted by peers so it presents plagiarism or duplicated research - the journals who publish it will be trusted limitations : - anonymity of the peer means they can be jealous or scrutinise other psychologists research who they dislike and also can be jealous of research which has been accumulated even if it has limited funding - not a true reflection of the quality of the research - peers can be difficult to find and so researchers may publish not high quality research because they didn’t understand the context or aims properly and so there is publication bias - this does not reflect the true state of psychology

Question 35

the economy

Answer 35

topic : psychopathology , bio approach to treating ocd - mention relevant research - review of 17 studies - soomro 1. improves quality f life for people with ocd 2. people will take less time off work due to illness 3. less reliance on beneifts 4. improves the nhs and their funding as they don’t need to waste money 5. successful treatments means lower relapse topic : memory - accuracy of ewt - ci - mention relevant research of fisher 1. improves ewt accuracy 2. greater chance of the police rosecuting the correct person first time 3. reduces impact of wasted money on wrong arrests, questioning and courts etc topic : attachment - role of the father - relevant research - fields study 1. both mothers and fathers are capable of aiding the healthy development outcomes of their infant 2. more mothers can return to work 3. less guilt and can contribute more towards the economy 4. maximises annual household income

Question 36

types of data

Answer 36

quantitative data - numerical data which can be analysed statistically , converted easily into graphical format, experiments, structured observations, correlations etc produce this data strengths - analysed statistically and we can compare trends and patterns between data through inferential stats , more objective since there is established mathematical data weaknesses - lacks represneation , generated from closed questions so doesn’t fully explain complex human behaviour so lacks validity as it lacks meaning and context qualitative data - non-numerical and language based, generated from interviews and open questionnaires , deeper insight strengths - rich in detail , meaningful insights, external validity as represent real world weaknesses - subjective , up to interpretation as it includes lengthy detail so is open to bias from the researcher primary data S - authentic , purpose of just for investigation, higher level of control , fits aims W - time and effort, expensive, equipment etc secondary data S - less time consuming, saves time energy and money W - accuracy of the data as it doesn’t meet the specific aim of the research , variability meta analysis - combine findings from various research on a specific idea to create an overall analysis of trends and patterns between groups, concludes qualitative and quantitate data S - larger sample, more confidence for generalisation so more validity of patterns W - bias , choose particular findings and get rid of others , not accurate reprenation of all relevant data on topic

Question 37

mean, median , mode

Answer 37

mean - most repesnetative of all measures of central tendency because comprise of whole data set - it is more sensitive as outliers can distort the mean, only used within edina’s and interval data median - not distorted by extreme scores - does not reflect all scores in data set mode - used in nominal data, nt distorted by extreme scores - can be more than one mode so not useful measure of central tendency range - can be easily calculated without a calculator - does not indicate the distribution of patterns across whole data set SD - precise measurement of dispersion because all values are included in calc - extreme values can distort the measurement

Question 38

types of graphs

Answer 38

- scattergram. shows correlations - bar graphs - show frequency data for discrete variables - histogram - y axis shows frequency on bar chart shows value

Question 39

normal and skewed distributions

Answer 39

normally distributed - symmetrical bell-shaped curve , most scores are close to the mean , progressively fewer scores at extreme of either tail positively skewed and negatively skewed - data does not follow symmetrical pattern so large proportion of scores fall below or after mean - mode remains highest point , not affected by extreme scores

Question 40

content analysis

Answer 40

- observational technique which involves studying people indirectly through qualitative data such as audio or video - classify responses in a way that is systematic so conclusions can be drawn - coding : researcher develops categories for the data to be classified, converts qualitative data into quantitative data so can be used for further stats analysis 1 decide in a content/bhv being observed. the researcher has to decide eg- books? every page, does the researcher look at every page or just 5th page. tv ads? does the researcher sample every 30s or note whenever bhv occur 2. behavioural categories. make a set of behavioural categories. clear and specific 3. code the data quantitative- count the number of instances qualitative- describe examples

Question 41

content analysis - evaluation

Answer 41

+ ecological validity - high ecological validity, records are kept of the qualitative sources people have read and if results were consistent on reanalysis they would be reliable + less ethical issues- much of material that a researcher may want to study already exists in the public so no issues obtaining consent + observer bias peopel are studied indirectly - could be subvjective or cultural differences can occur

Question 42

thematic analysis

Answer 42

technique used when analysing qualitative data, themes or categories are identified then organised according to themes - can be implicit or explicit 1. data is collected, read and reread the data to understand the meaning 2. break data into meaningful units 3. assign a label or code to each unit 4. combine simple codes units to larger categories

Question 43

features of science

Question 44

type 1 and 2 error

Answer 44

type 1 - null hypothesis is rejected and alternate H accepted but should have been the other way around , results are statistically significant when they are NOT, false positive type 2 error - null hypothesis accepted and alternate H rejected but should be other way around, results are not statistically significant