Gender Development

Question 1

gender role

Answer 1

societal expectations of gendered behavior/thought/traits

Question 2

boys vs girls: stereotypes

Answer 2

Boys: aggressive, competitive, assertive, risky, independent, athletic…
Girls: affectionate, gentle, loves children, compassionate, understanding…

Question 3

sex assigned at birth

Answer 3

based on objectively measurable biological organs, hormones, chromosomes
- male, female, intersex

Question 4

gender/gender identity

Answer 4

a person’s sense of self as gendered
- man, woman, gender-queer, non-binary
- a range
- sometimes aligns w sex assigned at birth

Question 5

gender expression

Answer 5

how a person demonstrates their gender
- feminine, masculine, etc.
○ Sometimes aligns with sex assigned at birth, other times gender/gender identity, etc.
○ They’re separate and don’t need to align

Question 6

sexual orientation

Answer 6

who a person is physically/emotionally attracted to

Question 7

gender binary in research

Answer 7

While society and research often talk about gender in distinct, dichotomous categories, this doesn’t align with many people’s experience with gender

Question 8

3 elements of gender development

Answer 8

• how does thinking about gender development and change with age?
• what gender-related differences in behavior and thought are seen in childhood and adolescence? Where do these differences come from?
• how do our conceptions and feelings about our own develop?

Question 9

infancy/toddlerhood (thinking about gender)

Answer 9

• can discriminate between male and female, but focus on superficial cues
• some awareness of gender-stereotypes
  ○ longer looked at own-gendered stereotyped toys
  ○ look longer at gender-inconsistent pictures

Question 10

showing toddler gender inconsistent photos

Answer 10

○ Measure how long infants look at pictures
○ They look longer at men doing typically feminine activities
§ They look longer at things that are surprising to them
○ By age 2: babies have sensitivity to it; they have some sense of gender and roles and norms

Question 11

childhood (thinking about gender)

Answer 11

• changes in cognitive development –> shifts in thinking about gender
• shift from gender essentialism to thinking of gender roles as socially influenced
• increase in knowledge of gender stereotypes

Question 12

childhood - stages (thinking about gender in childhood)

Answer 12

gender identity: 2-2.5 years
gender stability: 3-4 years
gender consistency: 5-7 years

Question 13

gender identity stage (childhood thinking about gender)

Answer 13

first able to identify their own gender
○ 2-3 y/o
Label gender in other people

Question 14

gender stability stage (childhood thinking about gender)

Answer 14

idea/understanding that you will always stay the gender across time
○ 3-4 y/o
- As you grow up, you’ll continue to have the same gender identity
- Until 3-4: kids don’t seem to have this sense

Question 15

gender consistency stage (childhood thinking about gender)

Answer 15

consistent across situations and appearance
○ 5-7 y/o
- Ex: if Sarah is a woman with long hair, what happens when we cut her hair? Answer: Sarah is then a boy
- Similar age to pass conservation tasks
- Similar to understanding that the volume of water doesn’t change even if it visually does

Question 16

gender essentialism

Answer 16

innate and deterministic
- If you’re a boy or girl, it determines how you act, what you like, and what you wear
- Genders are distinct categories of things that make people into different essences

Question 17

testing gender essentialism

Answer 17

island at birth studies
- Kids are told a story where there’s a baby girl named Chris
- She was brought to an island where there’s only boys and men
- Kids are asked about Chris
○ Asked about gender role properties
§ When Chris is 10, what kind of body will she have? Will she get into lots of fights or be very caring? Etc.

Question 18

island at birth studies (testing gender essentialism)

Answer 18

Before 9: believe that Chris will grow up and maintain feminine properties since she’s a girl

@ age 9: kids thinking seems to shift: think of gender roles as more socially influenced
If Chris is raised/surrounded by men, she’ll be socialized to act like them

Question 19

increase in knowledge of gender stereotypes (childhood)

Answer 19

• Rigid applications of stereotypes: 5-7 years
  ○ I.e. girls can’t like superheroes, boys can’t like dolls
  
  • Later: start to show flexibility in what is or isn’t allowed

Question 20

increase in knowledge of gender stereotypes (childhood) - curve

Answer 20

x axis: age
y axis: rigidity

learning: starts low, increases
consolidation: peaks in middle childhood
flexibility: decreases over time, during late childhood/early adolescence

Question 21

gender role intensification

Answer 21

heightened concern about adhering to traditional gender roles
- “I need to act in line w/ my identified gender”
- Feel very strict about this
- Seems to be about your own behavior
- May be more in behavior, more common in early/middle adolescence

Question 22

gender-role flexibility

Answer 22

allowing for traditional gender conventions to be transcended
- we don’t have to follow gender conventions
- It’s possible to act differently than gender conventions
- Seems to be about other people’s behavior; acknowledging that people can diverge
- May be more common in beliefs, more common in later adolescence

Question 23

how gender-role intensification and gender-role flexibility can both be true in adolescence

Answer 23

• One’s about your own behavior vs one being about your beliefs
  
  • When in development they occur

Question 24

gender & sex differences

Answer 24

• more variation WITHIN than BETWEEN
• differences are in average: they don’t apply to all individuals
• most research assumes participants are cisgender
  -Many studies conflate sex and gender

Question 25

physical gender & sex differences: infancy

Answer 25

few physical differences based on sex assigned at birth - Boys: tend to be a little bigger, a little more muscle tone, a little more active-ness

Question 26

physical gender & sex differences: puberty

Answer 26

- big increase in physical growth - development of primary sex characteristics, which results in hormone changes that enable reproduction - development of secondary sex characteristics (facial hair, public hair, breast development, genital development)

Question 27

physical differences developed during puberty (gender & sex differences)

Answer 27

stature: boys increase, girls level out lean arm circumference: boys increase, girls level out sum of 3 skinfolds: girls consistently higher & increase during puberty, boys level out (no major changes)

Question 28

physical gender & sex differences: after puberty

Answer 28

increase sex-linked differences - boys have greater physical strength & speed

Question 29

cognitive gender & sex differences

Answer 29

IQ: girls are slightly better at verbal tasks; boys are slightly better at spatial tasks academic achievement: girls generally do better in school - Consistent across most subjects ○ Most pronounced in language ○ Even seen in math scores - Linked to finding that girls tend to feel more positively about school; tend to put in more effort in school

Question 30

cognitive gender & sex differences: believing their gender is smart

Answer 30

By age 6-7, girls are less likely than boys to believe members of their own gender to be "really, really smart) ○ Told kids a story about a person who was really smart; have them pick if the person is a girl or boy ○ @ age 5: both genders tend to pick their own gender ○ girls @ 6-7: less likely to think of their own gender as smart; more likely to pick boys § Boys remain consistent in picking boys

Question 31

gender & sex differences in play

Answer 31

- Toys - Style of play - Fantasy - Size of play groups

Question 32

toys (gender & sex differences in play)

Answer 32

girls: dolls, kitchen sets, dress up boys: action figures, construction toys, video games

Question 33

style of play (gender & sex differences in play)

Answer 33

girls: more cooperative boys: more physically active & competative

Question 34

fantasy play (gender & sex differences in play)

Answer 34

girls: household roles, romance boys: heroes, combat

Question 35

size of play group (gender & sex differences in play)

Answer 35

girls: smaller groups, 2-3 people boys: larger groups

Question 36

emotional gender & sex differences

Answer 36

girls: - Report expressing more emotions ○ EXCEPT: anger (more commonly reported to be expressed by boys) - Emotion regulation Being able to manage or control their emotions

Question 37

mental health (emotional gender & sex differences)

Answer 37

beginning in early adolescence, girls are more likely to experience depression & low self esteem - higher rate of conditions that have to do with emotions

Question 38

interpersonal gender/sex differences

Answer 38

aggression: - boys: engage more in direct aggression - mixed findings: indirect/relational aggression altruism: girls more likely to show kindness to others & share

Question 39

interpersonal gender & sex differences: believing their gender is nice

Answer 39

Same study as believing their gender is "really, really smart": - EXCEPT: instead of someone smart, it's someone really nice - @ age 5: still more likely to see boys picking their own gender - @ age 6: boys are less likely to think about their own gender as really nice

Question 40

influences on gender development

Answer 40

biological: chromosomes, hormones, etc. social & cultural: family, peers, teachers, media cognitive influences: gender understanding, self-socialization, gender identity - may be shaped by our own thinking about gender

Question 41

biological influences on gender development

Answer 41

evolutionary psych theories: gender exists b/c they would have been adaptive for survival - Different traits/characteristics would be adaptive for survival in men and women - Diff pressures for men and women across evolution ○ Ex: maternal care - need to be close to the mother for breast feeding --> more caregiving behavior & collaborative playing

Question 42

hormones (biological influences on gender development)

Answer 42

- differences in androgen and estrogen hormones lead to gender differences - Almost everybody has all hormones, but there are relative differences dependent on sex

Question 43

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Answer 43

- XX chromosomes, but there's a condition where you have high levels of androgen (testosterone-type) hormones - Prenatally: leads to the formation of outwardly male-typed genitalia - gender expression and behavior: how does gender development occur here? - Research: quite commonly identify as girls/women, but in terms of gender expression/traits/characteristics, commonly show ones that we associate w/ boys ○ Playing w boys ○ Higher levels of energy ○ Fighting

Question 44

differences in brain structure

Answer 44

Corpus callosum: generally larger in women - small difference in adults

Question 45

social learning & social cognitive theories

Answer 45

- observational learning (modeling) - reinforcement

Question 46

observational learning (social learning & social cognitive theories)

Answer 46

- We watch people do certain types of behavior and then model it - We're likely to model people that we identify with ○ We learn the expression of our gender by watching people we associate with

Question 47

reinforcement (social learning & social cognitive theories)

Answer 47

- a girl that models/mimics wearing make-up is rewarded - BUT: a boy that models/mimics wearing make-up is punished

Question 48

kohlberg's cognitive development theory

Answer 48

- changes in thinking about gender leads to changes in adherence to gender-typed behavior/expectations

Question 49

gender stability (kohlberg's cognitive development theory)

Answer 49

When kids move to the stage of gender stability, there seems to be increased rigidity in how they express gender ○ More interest in wanting to adhere to models/expectations of their gender identity

Question 50

gender consistency (kohlberg's cognitive development theory)

Answer 50

internally stable; regardless of appearance/outward dress --> more flexibility in their expressions of gender ○ Don't feel as rigid in their expression of gender

Question 51

gender schema theory

Answer 51

- mental representations of gender influence experiences, expectations, & stereotypes - when children identify gender: use this to guide their behavior and understanding of the world - Help us organize our thoughts/experiences - Use schemas to help me organize the world/anticipate how to act - Mental representations of gender

Question 52

challenging gender stereotypes study (gender schema theory)

Answer 52

tell children a story with a firefighter that’s a man vs. a woman firefighter (i.e. challenging gender stereotypes) - Generally, their memory is less accurate when it doesn't adhere to your schema/assumptions of the world - Guides what we remember about the world

Question 53

gender schema theory: active constructions

Answer 53

- Always changing and growing in response to socialization, media, your experiences - Can shift and grow with time - Often use our own preferences/schemas to guide ourselves

Question 54

gender identity

Answer 54

sense of self as gendered; internal/psychological experience - gender is self-expressed; we can't tell other people what their gender identity is - transgender - cisgender - non-binary/genderqueer - agender/gender-neutral

Question 55

transgender (gender identity)

Answer 55

gender identity/expression differs from assigned sex/gender (umbrella term)

Question 56

cisgender (gender identity)

Answer 56

gender identity matches assigned sex/gender

Question 57

non-binary/genderqueer (gender identity)

Answer 57

an individual rejects the binary categorization of gender - can be a broad gender term

Question 58

agender/gender-neutral (gender identity)

Answer 58

an individual does not identify as a man/woman/any gender

Question 59

transgender gender identity

Answer 59

- 1-3% of youth in North America - help to understand development of all children + contributors to gender development --> the role of biological influences, socialization from others, and self-socialization

Question 60

cisgender: gender development experiences + alignment

Answer 60

Cisgender girl: assigned gender at birth, goes on to continue to identify as a girl - Biological influences are in line with female typed influences - Social & cultural influences: align with feminine-typed influences - Cognitive influences: her own gender identity/self socialization of how she understands herself aligns w/ "girl identity"

Question 61

transgender: gender development experiences + alignment

Answer 61

- Assigned male at birth; male-typed chromosomes; male-typed hormones - Social & cultural influences: in line w/ a masculine-typed identity Self socialization: their own gender understanding/thoughts about their own gender

Question 62

socially transitioned trans children

Answer 62

- Socially transition to live as your current felt gender - No medical intervention yet (i.e. no surgery) ○ Affirms their current gender status

Question 63

cisgender vs transgender youth: explicit gender identity

Answer 63

identity: do you feel like a boy, girl, or something else? - Ask about the future: will you be a boy, girl, or something else? no notable difference between cis and trans youth

Question 64

cisgender vs transgender youth: implicit gender identity

Answer 64

When their identified gender is paired with images/pictures of a gender (i.e. pictures of girls, etc.) - In both cis and transgender youth: often identifying with their current gender - Transyouth: implicit gender identity is somewhat variable ○ Not always as fast at associating current gender

Question 65

cisgender vs transgender youth: similarity in gender identity

Answer 65

- Lots of similarity between cisgender and transgender youth - Transgender girls prefer girl gender-stereotyped toys ○ More likely to choose toys in line with their identified gender

Question 66

cisgender vs transgender youth: gender stereotypes

Answer 66

how much you think that other people should adhere to gender stereotypes - Both cisgender and transgender youth are equally likely to have strong, prescriptive gender stereotypes

Question 67

cisgender vs transgender youth: gender stability

Answer 67

Trans youth: more likely to view gender as fluid

Question 68

cisgender vs transgender youth: remembering gender stereotyped stories better

Answer 68

- Equally true for cis-gender and transgender youth - Measures seem to be quite similar

Question 69

arguments for self-socialization: transgender youth

Answer 69

Have sex-assigned-at-birth hormones + socialization to be the sex assigned at birth ○ External socialization factors typically align with birth sex - Despite all the biological and socialization influences, transgender youth show as consistent of a gender identity as their cisgender counterparts § Internal motivation

Question 70

cisgender vs transgender youth: mental health

Answer 70

Historically: trans & non-binary youth experience higher levels of mental health challenges and struggles - higher: bullying @ school, significant depressive symptoms, and attempted suicide - Along the idea of minority/oppression stress

Question 71

cisgender vs SOCIALLY TRANSITIONED transgender youth: mental health

Answer 71

no particular heightened mental health challenges - same depression and anxiety rates as control groups and their siblings

Question 72

socially transitioned youth + good mental health outcomes

Answer 72

suggestion: socially transitioned youth seem to have better mental health outcomes than those who haven't/aren't able to

Question 73

socially transitioned youth + good mental health outcomes: important caveats

Answer 73

* Socially transitioned sample may be better supported by family/environment * Socially transitioned sample tends to be younger, higher income * Cultural context (all North America) * Family pressures/not being out yet

Question 74

beyond the binary: lack of research asking regarding gender diverse/gender nonbinary youth

Answer 74

- Older teens and adults: comprises of a large number of experiences - Many belief they're fluid; don’t believe gender is a concept they identify to

Question 75

beyond the binary: increasing visiblity

Answer 75

○ Non-binary experiences have always existed, but there's a rise of children who are identifying with a non-binary identity ○ Brings self-socialization into question

Question 76

beyond the binary: current research

Answer 76

- determining how to best measure non-binary identity in children § Measuring a non-binary identity is not simple in children who don't have the words to express what they feel - proposed measurement: scale approach - give a scale to rank how they feel (boy to girl) § Critique of being put on a dichotomous continuum; no room for fluidity - examining mental health

Question 77

beyond the binary: mental health reserach

Answer 77

○ Looking @ mental health outcomes § What mental health outcomes are for non-binary youth (compared to cis and trans youth) □ Some see increased mental health issues □ Other studies have found the opposite § Recent critique: it's a diverse range of identities and that matters